The sources of information about the Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1672 AD) come from a variety of records, including literary works, foreign accounts, inscriptions, and archaeological remains. These sources provide a comprehensive picture of the empire’s political, social, economic, and cultural life.
1. Literary Sources
A. Native Literary Sources
Native literary works, especially in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, provide rich accounts of the Vijayanagara Empire. These works offer insights into the culture, administration, religious practices, and daily life of the people.
- Amuktamalyada by Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529): A famous Telugu work written by the great emperor Krishna Deva Raya, “Amuktamalyada” provides not only a glimpse into the religious devotion of the king but also valuable insights into the administrative policies and governance during his reign. It is one of the earliest examples of Telugu literature and speaks to the cultural vibrancy of the empire.
- Madhuravijayam by Gangadevi (14th century): This Sanskrit poem, written by Gangadevi, wife of the prince Kumara Kampana, describes the victory of the Vijayanagara forces over the Sultan of Madurai. It is an important source for understanding the military campaigns of the Vijayanagara kings, particularly the reconquest of South India from the Madurai Sultanate.
- Kannada and Telugu Literature: Kannada poets like Kumara Vyasa and Telugu poets like Allasani Peddana, Tenali Ramakrishna, and Dhurjati composed epic poems, eulogies, and philosophical works, which provide glimpses into the royal patronage of arts and literature.
B. Court Chronicles
These official records kept by the court were designed to document the reigns of various rulers, recording important events and achievements. For example:
- Rajakalanirnaya: A Sanskrit work that records important events and dates associated with the Vijayanagara kings.
- Rayavachakamu: This Telugu chronicle narrates the events during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya, providing details on court life, battles, and the administration of the empire.
2. Foreign Accounts
Foreign travelers and ambassadors who visited the Vijayanagara Empire left detailed records of their observations. These accounts are valuable for understanding the socio-political and economic conditions of the empire from an outsider’s perspective.
A. Persian and Arab Travelers
- Abdur Razzaq (1443–1444): A Persian ambassador from the Timurid court of Herat, Abdur Razzaq visited Vijayanagara during the reign of Deva Raya II. His travelogue offers vivid descriptions of the city of Vijayanagara, its prosperity, administration, military organization, and grandeur. He particularly admired the splendor of the capital city and noted the empire’s wealth and cosmopolitan nature.
- Nuniz (1520s): A Portuguese traveler, Nuniz’s account gives a detailed description of the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. His account is important for understanding the administrative setup, trade, and foreign relations of the empire during the early 16th century.
B. European Accounts
- Domingo Paes (1520s): A Portuguese traveler, Paes visited the Vijayanagara Empire during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya and provided an insightful account of the empire’s wealth, economy, festivals, and the power of its military. He admired the grandeur of the city and the efficiency of its administration. Paes’s account is considered one of the most detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara’s peak under Krishna Deva Raya.
- Fernão Nunes (1535): Another Portuguese traveler, Nunes provided valuable descriptions of the socio-political conditions of Vijayanagara after Krishna Deva Raya’s death. His account sheds light on the empire’s internal struggles, the structure of its economy, and its dealings with European traders.
3. Inscriptions
Inscriptions are among the most reliable sources of information about the Vijayanagara Empire. They were primarily written in Sanskrit, Kannada, and Telugu, and were inscribed on stone and copper plates. These inscriptions provide critical data on the administrative system, land grants, religious donations, military campaigns, and important events.
- Copper Plate Grants: These were issued by kings and nobles to record land grants to temples, Brahmins, and other individuals. They often contain the name of the king, the recipient of the grant, the date, and the purpose. The copper plates are crucial for understanding the empire’s land revenue system and its religious and social policies.
- Temple Inscriptions: Found on the walls and pillars of temples throughout South India, these inscriptions document donations to temples, including land, gold, and livestock. They provide insight into the religious life of the empire and its support for Hinduism. One of the most famous inscriptions is found at the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi.
- Victory Inscriptions: Kings often inscribed their victories and achievements on temple walls and pillars. These inscriptions are invaluable for reconstructing the military campaigns and territorial expansions of the Vijayanagara rulers. For instance, inscriptions from the reign of Krishna Deva Raya record his victories over the Bahmani Sultanate and Orissa.
4. Archaeological Remains
The archaeological remains of the Vijayanagara Empire, especially the ruins of the capital city at Hampi, are key sources of historical information. These ruins offer a glimpse into the empire’s urban planning, architecture, religion, and daily life.
A. Temples and Monuments
- Hampi: The ruins of Hampi, the capital city of Vijayanagara, are now a UNESCO World Heritage site. The vast array of temples, palaces, and public buildings demonstrate the empire’s architectural achievements. The most notable structures include the Virupaksha Temple, the Vittala Temple, and the Lotus Mahal. The temples are adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures, depicting mythological scenes and royal processions, reflecting the empire’s religious and cultural ethos.
- Royal Enclosures: The remains of royal enclosures, palaces, and military fortifications provide insights into the political and military organization of the empire. The royal baths, audience halls, and elephant stables at Hampi illustrate the grandeur and sophistication of the Vijayanagara court.
B. Military Architecture
- Fortresses and Watchtowers: The remains of fortifications and watchtowers around Hampi and other strategic locations provide evidence of the empire’s military strength and its emphasis on defense. The empire had an extensive network of forts, which were built to protect its territories from invasions.
- Irrigation and Water Management Systems: The Vijayanagara rulers constructed an elaborate network of reservoirs, aqueducts, and canals to manage water supply in the semi-arid region of Hampi. The remains of these waterworks show their advanced understanding of hydraulics and their efforts to support agriculture.
5. Numismatic Evidence
Coins from the Vijayanagara period are important sources for understanding the economic conditions, trade, and religious affiliations of the rulers. Coins minted by the Vijayanagara kings often featured depictions of Hindu deities, reflecting the empire’s religious patronage. The coins also reveal the trade relations with other regions, including the Islamic world and Europe, as they are often found in areas far beyond the empire’s borders.
- Gold Coins: The most famous coins from this period are the Varaha, gold coins that were issued by Krishna Deva Raya and other rulers. These coins typically depicted deities like Balakrishna, Venkateshwara, and Hanuman, showing the importance of religion and royal piety.
- Copper and Silver Coins: These were used in domestic trade and are often found in various parts of South India, highlighting the empire’s thriving internal economy.
Conclusion
The sources of information on the Vijayanagara Empire are diverse, ranging from literary works and foreign accounts to inscriptions, archaeology, and numismatics. Each source provides unique insights into different aspects of the empire’s life, from its military conquests and administrative policies to its cultural and religious practices. By studying these sources, historians have been able to reconstruct the history of one of South India’s greatest empires, known for its wealth, power, and cultural achievements.
