The relationship between Humayun and the Afghans played a critical role in shaping the early history of the Mughal Empire. After Babur’s death in 1530, his son Humayun inherited the throne, but his rule was marked by instability, largely due to the persistent challenge posed by Afghan rulers and nobles. The struggle between Humayun and the Afghans led to significant political upheavals, including the eventual rise of Sher Shah Suri, who temporarily displaced Humayun from power.
This interaction between Humayun and the Afghan nobles and rulers reflects the broader power dynamics in northern India, where Afghans, who had played a significant role under the Delhi Sultanate, sought to regain their dominance against the rising Mughal power.
1. Humayun’s Accession to the Throne (1530)
Humayun ascended the Mughal throne at the age of 22 after the death of his father, Babur. Although he inherited an empire, the Mughal dominion was far from secure. Babur had defeated the Lodis at the First Battle of Panipat (1526), but many Afghan nobles and rulers who had served the Lodi dynasty were still powerful and hostile to Mughal rule. Humayun faced challenges from multiple quarters, including Afghan chiefs, his own brothers, and Rajput rulers.
2. The Rise of Afghan Power: Sher Shah Suri
The most prominent figure among the Afghans who challenged Humayun was Sher Shah Suri (originally named Farid Khan), a capable and ambitious Afghan leader. He eventually founded the Suri Dynasty and became one of Humayun’s most formidable adversaries.
A. Sher Shah Suri’s Background
- Sher Shah was an Afghan noble who initially served under various Afghan chiefs and the rulers of Bihar and Bengal.
- He distinguished himself as a military and administrative genius, and by the time Humayun took the throne, Sher Shah had already gained control over much of Bihar and Bengal, two regions that were strategically and economically important.
- His experience and deep understanding of local politics made him a serious threat to the Mughals.
B. The Conquest of Bihar and Bengal
- In 1537, Sher Shah seized control of Bengal after defeating its ruler, Sultan Mahmud Shah, consolidating his power in eastern India.
- Bengal’s resources provided Sher Shah with the economic and military means to challenge Humayun directly.
- Around this time, Humayun was engaged in a prolonged siege of Chunar Fort, which further delayed his response to Sher Shah’s growing influence in the east.
3. The First Phase of Conflict: Battles of Chausa and Kannauj
A. The Battle of Chausa (1539)
The confrontation between Humayun and Sher Shah Suri reached a crucial point at the Battle of Chausa, fought on June 26, 1539. Sher Shah Suri, with his growing power base in Bihar and Bengal, defeated Humayun in this battle near Chausa (in present-day Bihar).
- Humayun’s Overconfidence: Humayun underestimated Sher Shah, believing his Afghan rival to be merely a local chieftain. He failed to foresee the level of organization and strategic acumen Sher Shah possessed.
- Defeat and Retreat: Sher Shah inflicted a crushing defeat on Humayun. Humayun narrowly escaped with his life by crossing the Ganges River with the help of a water carrier (a famous anecdote). This battle significantly weakened Humayun’s military strength and prestige.
B. The Battle of Kannauj (1540)
A year later, on May 17, 1540, Humayun again faced Sher Shah at the Battle of Kannauj (also known as the Battle of Bilgram). Sher Shah’s forces decisively defeated the Mughals once more, forcing Humayun into exile.
- Sher Shah’s Tactics: Sher Shah employed superior military tactics, including his mastery of field fortifications, to outmaneuver Humayun’s forces.
- Humayun’s Escape: After this second major defeat, Humayun fled westward, eventually seeking refuge in Persia (modern-day Iran). The loss at Kannauj marked the complete collapse of Mughal authority in India for the next 15 years.
4. Sher Shah Suri’s Reign (1540–1545)
After his victory over Humayun, Sher Shah Suri established the Suri Dynasty and ruled northern India from 1540 to 1545. His reign, though short, was marked by significant reforms and achievements.
A. Administrative and Economic Reforms
Sher Shah is remembered for his visionary reforms, which laid the foundation for modern administration in India. Some of his most important contributions include:
- Land Revenue System: Sher Shah introduced a highly efficient and standardized land revenue system, known as the Ryotwari system, which categorized land based on its productivity and ensured direct collection of taxes from the peasants.
- Road Infrastructure: He constructed the Grand Trunk Road, one of the most important highways in the Indian subcontinent, connecting Bengal to the western parts of the empire. This road greatly improved trade, communication, and administrative efficiency.
- Coinage and Currency: Sher Shah introduced a uniform currency system, standardizing the silver Rupiya, which would continue to be used during the Mughal Empire and even into modern India.
B. Military Strength
Sher Shah’s military prowess was one of the key reasons for his success. His army was disciplined, well-organized, and equipped with modern weapons. He established a system of military posts and garrisons to secure his empire.
5. Humayun’s Exile and Return
A. Humayun’s Exile (1540–1555)
After his defeat at Kannauj, Humayun wandered through Rajasthan and Sindh for several years. He attempted to recapture his lost empire but faced numerous setbacks. Eventually, he crossed into Persia in 1543 and sought refuge with Shah Tahmasp I, the Safavid ruler.
- Humayun’s Stay in Persia: During his time in Persia, Humayun developed a close relationship with Shah Tahmasp and converted to Shia Islam, at least outwardly, to secure the Persian ruler’s support. This alliance would prove crucial in Humayun’s eventual return to power.
- Support from Persia: With Persian military assistance, Humayun gradually regained strength and began to plan his return to India.
B. The Death of Sher Shah and Humayun’s Opportunity
Sher Shah Suri died in 1545 due to an accidental explosion during the siege of Kalinjhar Fort. His death led to a period of instability and infighting within the Suri dynasty. His son and successor, Islam Shah Suri, ruled effectively for a few years but failed to maintain the same level of control.
After the death of Islam Shah Suri in 1553, the Suri dynasty faced further internal conflict, weakening their hold on the empire. This provided Humayun with an opportunity to return to India.
C. Humayun’s Return and the Battle of Machchiwara (1555)
In 1555, with Persian support, Humayun re-entered India. He fought several battles against the weakened Sur dynasty and, by July 1555, managed to recapture Delhi and Agra after defeating the Afghan forces at the Battle of Machchiwara.
6. Humayun’s Final Years and Legacy
Humayun’s return to the throne was short-lived. In January 1556, just six months after reclaiming Delhi, he died in a tragic accident after falling down the stairs of his library. His son Akbar succeeded him and went on to consolidate and expand the Mughal Empire, but it was Humayun who laid the groundwork for its revival.
7. Significance of the Struggle Between Humayun and the Afghans
A. Decline of Afghan Power
Humayun’s battles against the Afghans, especially Sher Shah Suri, highlight the final phase of the Afghan dominance in northern India. While Sher Shah successfully ousted Humayun and established a short-lived Afghan dynasty, the disunity within the Suri dynasty after his death paved the way for the resurgence of Mughal power under Humayun’s son, Akbar.
B. Sher Shah’s Legacy
Sher Shah Suri’s rule, though brief, had a lasting impact on Indian history. His administrative and military reforms were adopted by later Mughal rulers, and many historians regard Sher Shah as one of the greatest rulers of medieval India, despite the relatively short duration of his rule. His achievements in governance, infrastructure, and coinage set a high standard that influenced Mughal administrative policies.
C. Humayun’s Resilience
Despite suffering multiple defeats and spending nearly 15 years in exile, Humayun’s resilience and diplomatic skills enabled him to eventually regain his throne. His ability to forge alliances, especially with Persia, was instrumental in his success. Though Humayun’s reign is often overshadowed by the achievements of his father Babur and his son Akbar, his determination helped preserve the Mughal dynasty during a period of intense struggle.
Conclusion
The struggle between Humayun and the Afghans was a defining chapter in the early history of the Mughal Empire.
