RELIGIOUS POLICY

The religious policy of Aurangzeb was one of the most defining aspects of his reign and has been a subject of intense historical debate. Aurangzeb, unlike his predecessors, pursued a conservative and orthodox interpretation of Islam, which significantly influenced his rule, his relationship with his subjects, and the broader Mughal Empire. His policies marked a departure from the religious tolerance practiced by earlier Mughal emperors, particularly his great-grandfather Akbar and father Shah Jahan. This religious conservatism played a key role in the War of Succession and the events that shaped Aurangzeb’s long reign from 1658 to 1707.

Background: Religious Pluralism before Aurangzeb

The Mughal Empire, from the time of Akbar (r. 1556–1605), had generally followed a policy of religious tolerance. Akbar, in particular, is noted for his policy of Sulh-i-kul (peace for all), which promoted harmony between Muslims and non-Muslims. He abolished the jizya tax (a tax levied on non-Muslims) and encouraged interfaith dialogues. His court was known for hosting scholars of different religious traditions, including Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, and Christians.

Akbar’s successors, Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), while more conservative than Akbar, largely continued this policy of relative religious tolerance, maintaining close relations with the Hindu Rajput nobles and avoiding religious persecution. This policy helped the Mughals maintain control over a vast, diverse empire with a predominantly non-Muslim population.

Aurangzeb’s Religious Outlook

Aurangzeb’s religious policy was shaped by his personal piety and conservative interpretation of Sunni Islam. Unlike his elder brother Dara Shikoh, who was a proponent of religious syncretism and Sufi mysticism, Aurangzeb adhered strictly to the Sharia (Islamic law) and saw himself as a champion of orthodox Islam.

During the War of Succession, religion played a significant role in differentiating Aurangzeb from his rival brothers, particularly Dara Shikoh. Dara’s eclectic religious views and his study of Hindu scriptures like the Upanishads led many conservative Muslims to view him with suspicion, if not outright hostility. Aurangzeb, capitalizing on this sentiment, portrayed Dara as a heretic and himself as the protector of Islamic orthodoxy.

Key Elements of Aurangzeb’s Religious Policy

1. Reintroduction of the Jizya Tax (1679):
   • In a significant departure from the policies of Akbar, Aurangzeb reimposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679. The jizya had been abolished by Akbar as part of his policy of inclusivity, but Aurangzeb saw it as a religious duty to uphold Islamic law. This tax was symbolic of his desire to restore Islamic governance.
   • The jizya was deeply resented by non-Muslims, particularly the Hindus and Jains, and contributed to growing dissatisfaction with Mughal rule in many parts of the empire.
2. Destruction of Hindu Temples:
   • Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of several Hindu temples and shrines during his reign. Some of the most famous temples destroyed under his orders were the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and the Keshav Rai temple in Mathura. These acts were justified by Aurangzeb on religious grounds, although they alienated his Hindu subjects.
   • However, Aurangzeb did not destroy all Hindu temples. In some cases, particularly in regions where Mughal control was fragile or dependent on Hindu nobles, temples were left untouched, and grants were even given to some Hindu religious institutions. This has led some historians to argue that Aurangzeb’s temple destruction was motivated as much by political concerns as by religious ones.
3. Suppression of Non-Islamic Practices:
   • Aurangzeb issued numerous farman (royal edicts) forbidding non-Islamic practices and enforcing Islamic social codes. For example:
     • He banned the practice of sati (the burning of widows on their husband’s pyre), although this could also be viewed as a humanitarian reform rather than purely religious.
     • He prohibited the construction of new Hindu temples and ordered the destruction of newly built ones.
     • Dancing, music, and public performances, which were seen as frivolous and against Islamic law, were banned at the Mughal court. This was a sharp contrast to the vibrant cultural life under earlier emperors, particularly under Akbar, who had patronized the arts and music.
4. Promotion of Islamic Scholars and Education:
   • Aurangzeb was a strong supporter of Islamic scholarship. He commissioned the compilation of the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a vast compendium of Islamic law based on the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, which aimed to create a legal framework for the empire based on Sharia.
   • He also funded madrasas (Islamic schools) and promoted religious scholars, ensuring that Islamic jurisprudence became central to the functioning of his court and administration.
5. Conversion Policies:
   • While Aurangzeb did not engage in mass forced conversions, he provided incentives for conversion to Islam. For instance, converts to Islam were exempted from paying the jizya and sometimes given official positions in the Mughal administration.
   • In some cases, political pressure was applied to encourage conversions, particularly among the Hindu aristocracy and Rajput rulers who were reluctant to accept Mughal sovereignty.

Key Events and Conflicts Related to Aurangzeb’s Religious Policies

1. Conflict with Dara Shikoh:
   • Dara Shikoh, Aurangzeb’s elder brother and rival in the War of Succession, was a devout Sufi who was deeply interested in Hindu mysticism and the philosophical parallels between Hinduism and Islam. He translated the Upanishads into Persian and sought to promote interfaith dialogue.
   • Dara’s eclecticism made him popular with some Hindu and Sufi groups but alienated him from conservative Islamic scholars and nobles. Aurangzeb used this to his advantage, labeling Dara a heretic and a threat to Islam. After defeating Dara at the Battle of Samugarh in 1658, Aurangzeb had him executed on charges of apostasy in 1659. This marked the end of Mughal syncretism and the beginning of Aurangzeb’s orthodox rule.
2. Revolts and Resistance:
   • Rajput Rebellion (1679-1681): Aurangzeb’s reintroduction of the jizya tax and his attempts to annex Rajput kingdoms led to a major rebellion in Rajasthan, particularly under Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Marwar. The Rajputs, who had been loyal allies of the Mughals since the time of Akbar, were deeply offended by Aurangzeb’s religious policies and his attempts to centralize power at the expense of their autonomy. This rebellion, though eventually subdued, weakened Mughal control over Rajasthan.
   • Maratha Resistance: Aurangzeb’s most significant military challenge came from the Marathas in the Deccan Plateau. Led by Shivaji Bhonsle, the Marathas conducted a long guerrilla war against Mughal forces. Although Shivaji was not primarily motivated by religious considerations, his defense of Hindu temples and resistance to Aurangzeb’s rule became a rallying point for many Hindus. After Shivaji’s death in 1680, Aurangzeb launched a prolonged campaign to crush the Maratha state, but the effort drained Mughal resources and ended in failure.
   • Sikh Resistance: Aurangzeb’s relations with the Sikh Gurus were also contentious. In 1675, Aurangzeb ordered the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, for refusing to convert to Islam. This act deeply alienated the Sikh community and led to the militarization of the Sikhs under Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru. In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa, a martial order dedicated to defending Sikhism from Mughal oppression. The Sikh resistance continued to grow after Aurangzeb’s death, eventually leading to the formation of the Sikh Empire in the early 19th century.
3. Rebellion of the Jats:
   • The Jats, a peasant community in the region around Mathura, also rebelled against Aurangzeb’s policies. Led by Gokula, the Jats resisted Mughal taxation policies and Aurangzeb’s destruction of Hindu temples. Their revolt was brutally suppressed, but the Jat community remained a source of unrest throughout Aurangzeb’s reign.

Important Personalities Related to Aurangzeb’s Religious Policy

1. Shivaji Bhonsle (1630–1680):
   • The founder of the Maratha Empire, Shivaji was one of Aurangzeb’s most formidable opponents. Although Shivaji’s resistance to the Mughal Empire was political, his defense of Hindu religious institutions against Aurangzeb’s policies made him a hero among Hindus.
2. Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675):
   • The ninth Sikh Guru, who was executed by Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam. His death became a turning point for the Sikh community, leading to the militarization of the Sikhs under Guru Gobind Singh.
3. Dara Shikoh (1615–1659):
   • Aurangzeb’s elder brother and rival in the War of Succession, Dara was a proponent of religious syncretism and Sufi mysticism. His defeat and execution marked the end of religious pluralism in the Mughal court.
4. Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1629–1678):
   • The Rajput ruler of Marwar, Jaswant Singh’s resistance to Aurangzeb’s annexation of his kingdom and the reintroduction of the jizya tax led to the Rajput rebellion, which weakened Mughal control in Rajasthan.
5. Mir Jumla:
   • A powerful Mughal general and supporter of Aurangzeb, Mir Jumla played a key role in the emperor’s military campaigns, including his conquest of Golconda and Bijapur, both of which were key centers of Islamic power in southern India.
6. Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708):
   • The tenth Sikh Guru, who militarized the Sikh community in response to Mughal oppression and established the Khalsa in 1699. His resistance to Aurangzeb continued after the emperor’s death and laid the foundation for the future Sikh Empire.

Impact and Legacy of Aurangzeb’s Religious Policy

1. Division and Alienation of Non-Muslim Subjects:
   • Aurangzeb’s religious policies, particularly the reimposition of the jizya tax and the destruction of Hindu temples, alienated large sections of the non-Muslim population, including Hindus, Sikhs, and Jains. This growing alienation weakened the bonds that had held the Mughal Empire together under Akbar and his successors.
2. Weakening of Mughal Authority:
   • The revolts by the Rajputs, Marathas, and Sikhs, as well as other smaller rebellions, sapped the strength of the Mughal Empire and made it increasingly difficult for Aurangzeb to maintain control over his vast territories. His military campaigns, particularly in the Deccan, drained the imperial treasury and left the empire overstretched.
3. Shift in Religious Policy:
   • After Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, his successors were forced to adopt more conciliatory policies toward non-Muslims, but the damage had already been done. The religious divides that Aurangzeb’s policies exacerbated continued to haunt the Mughal Empire, contributing to its eventual decline and fragmentation.
4. Long-Term Consequences for Indian Society:
   • Aurangzeb’s reign deepened religious divisions in Indian society, setting the stage for future conflicts between different religious communities. The Maratha-Sikh-Rajput opposition that arose during his rule played a crucial role in resisting Mughal authority and eventually contributed to the rise of regional powers like the Maratha Empire and the Sikh Empire, which challenged Mughal rule in the 18th and early 19th centuries.

In conclusion, Aurangzeb’s religious policy, characterized by a strict adherence to Islamic orthodoxy, played a significant role in shaping the events and personalities of his reign. His efforts to impose Islamic law across the empire and suppress non-Muslim practices alienated many of his subjects, particularly the Hindus, Sikhs, and Rajputs, leading to numerous rebellions and weakening Mughal authority. His legacy as a ruler is deeply intertwined with his religious policies, which continue to be debated and reinterpreted by historians today.