Aurangzeb’s reign (1658-1707) was marked by an ambitious drive for territorial consolidation and expansion, making the Mughal Empire the largest it had ever been. However, this came at a great cost, both militarily and economically, eventually leading to the empire’s decline. Aurangzeb sought to bring all of India under Mughal control and dedicated most of his reign to military campaigns, particularly in the Deccan and southern India. The events during this period were shaped by protracted warfare, rebellion, and the personalities who opposed or assisted his imperial ambitions.
Background and Early Territorial Consolidation
Aurangzeb inherited a vast and prosperous empire from his father, Shah Jahan. The Mughal Empire under Shah Jahan stretched from Kashmir in the north to the Deccan Plateau in the south, and from Bengal in the east to Kandahar (modern-day Afghanistan) in the west. However, parts of southern India, particularly the Deccan Sultanates and Maratha territories, were outside direct Mughal control.
Aurangzeb’s military campaigns aimed to eliminate internal rivals, conquer independent kingdoms, and assert Mughal authority over these regions. The emperor spent most of his later years on the battlefield, attempting to bring these regions under Mughal domination.
Key Phases of Aurangzeb’s Territorial Expansion
1. Early Military Campaigns (1658–1679):
Aurangzeb’s initial years as emperor were focused on consolidating his rule by defeating his rivals and asserting control over northern and central India.
- War of Succession (1657-1658):
- Aurangzeb’s first significant military conflict was the War of Succession. After Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, Aurangzeb faced his brothers, particularly Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, and Murad Baksh, for control of the empire. His victory at the Battle of Samugarh (1658) and subsequent execution of Dara and imprisonment of Shah Jahan cemented his position as emperor.
- The war also gave Aurangzeb control over Bengal, Gujarat, and Sindh, which had been held by his brothers, strengthening Mughal authority in these regions.
- Annexation of Golconda and Bijapur (1659–1687):
- After the War of Succession, Aurangzeb turned his attention to the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda. These sultanates had long been semi-independent and occasionally rebelled against Mughal authority.
- In 1659, Aurangzeb launched campaigns against the Sultanates, initially focusing on Bijapur. After a prolonged siege, Bijapur fell to the Mughals in 1686. A year later, Aurangzeb successfully annexed Golconda in 1687, bringing two of the last independent Deccan states under Mughal control. This significantly expanded the empire’s southern frontiers.
- Kashmir and the North-West Frontier:
- Aurangzeb also led military campaigns in the north, particularly in Kashmir and the north-west frontier regions. He consolidated Mughal control over these areas, pushing the boundaries further into Afghanistan. He frequently had to deal with Pashtun tribes, who were known for their rebellious nature. Though Mughal control was tenuous in these regions, Aurangzeb’s military expeditions succeeded in keeping the frontiers relatively secure.
2. Conquest of Maratha Territories (1670–1707):
Aurangzeb’s most significant and prolonged military struggle was with the Marathas in the Deccan. His campaigns against them began as early as the 1670s, but it wasn’t until after Shivaji’s death in 1680 that Aurangzeb intensified his efforts to conquer Maratha territories.
- Shivaji Bhonsle (1630-1680):
- Shivaji was a Maratha leader who successfully challenged Mughal authority in the Deccan. He established an independent Maratha kingdom and conducted raids into Mughal territory. In 1666, after being captured by the Mughals, Shivaji managed a dramatic escape and continued his resistance.
- Despite several attempts by Aurangzeb to capture or defeat Shivaji, the Maratha leader proved elusive. Shivaji’s coronation as Chhatrapati (King) in 1674 at Raigad further solidified his power and marked the establishment of a strong, independent Maratha state.
- Maratha Resistance and Sambhaji (1681-1689):
- After Shivaji’s death in 1680, his son Sambhaji succeeded him as the leader of the Marathas. Aurangzeb saw an opportunity to crush the Marathas and annex their territories, launching a massive military campaign in the Deccan in 1681.
- Despite Aurangzeb’s efforts, Sambhaji continued his father’s legacy of resistance, attacking Mughal strongholds and conducting guerrilla warfare. In 1689, Sambhaji was captured by Aurangzeb’s forces and brutally executed. However, instead of subduing the Marathas, this only intensified their resistance, with Rajaram, Shivaji’s younger son, continuing the fight from Gingee.
- Deccan Wars and Mughal Overstretch (1681–1707):
- Aurangzeb spent the last 26 years of his reign in the Deccan, trying to subjugate the Marathas and secure Mughal control over southern India. However, the Marathas, under leaders like Rajaram, Tara Bai, and Shahu, continued to resist through guerrilla warfare, making it nearly impossible for the Mughals to hold on to captured territories.
- The long and costly campaign drained the Mughal treasury and exhausted the imperial army. Despite Aurangzeb’s capture of Maratha forts and territories, the Marathas consistently recaptured their lost land, and by the time of Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, the Mughal Empire was left weakened and vulnerable.
3. Conquest of Assam and Expansion in the East (1662–1667):
Aurangzeb’s expansionist ambitions were not limited to the west and south; he also sought to consolidate Mughal control in the east, particularly over Assam and Bengal.
- In 1662, Mughal forces under Mir Jumla, Aurangzeb’s governor of Bengal, launched an invasion of Assam, ruled by the Ahom dynasty. Mir Jumla’s forces initially achieved some success, capturing key towns and forts in Assam. However, the Mughals faced stiff resistance from the Ahom rulers and the local population.
- The campaign eventually faltered due to logistical challenges, and by 1667, the Mughals had to withdraw, leaving Assam under the control of the Ahoms. This campaign marked a rare failure for Aurangzeb’s expansionist efforts, as the eastern frontier remained difficult to subdue.
4. Annexation of Bengal and Orissa:
Aurangzeb’s efforts to secure Bengal and Orissa were largely successful, although the eastern regions were not as fiercely contested as the Deccan.
- Aurangzeb appointed strong governors to Bengal and Orissa, such as Shaista Khan, to manage the region and suppress revolts.
- Shaista Khan played a key role in expanding Mughal influence in the region, particularly by subduing the Arakanese pirates and gaining control over Chittagong in 1666. This expanded Mughal control over coastal Bengal and secured the empire’s eastern maritime frontier.
Personalities Involved in Aurangzeb’s Territorial Expansion
- Shivaji Bhonsle (1630–1680):
- The founder of the Maratha Empire, Shivaji was Aurangzeb’s most significant adversary in the Deccan. His successful raids, escape from Mughal captivity, and establishment of an independent Maratha kingdom set the stage for continued Maratha resistance.
- Sambhaji Bhonsle (1657–1689):
- Shivaji’s son and successor, Sambhaji, continued his father’s struggle against Aurangzeb until his capture and execution in 1689. His death intensified Maratha resistance, which continued under Rajaram and later leaders.
- Mir Jumla (1591–1663):
- A key general and administrator under Aurangzeb, Mir Jumla played a significant role in expanding Mughal influence in the Deccan and the east, including the invasion of Assam. He was instrumental in consolidating Mughal power in Bengal.
- Shaista Khan (1600–1694):
- Aurangzeb’s governor of Bengal and Orissa, Shaista Khan was a capable military leader and administrator who expanded Mughal control over Bengal’s coastal areas and dealt with challenges from Arakanese pirates.
- Rajaram Bhonsle (1670–1700):
- The younger son of Shivaji, Rajaram continued the Maratha resistance after Sambhaji’s death. He led the Maratha forces from Gingee in the south, organizing a fierce guerrilla resistance against the Mughal forces.
- Tara Bai (1675–1761):
- The widow of Rajaram, Tara Bai became a prominent leader of the Marathas after her husband’s death. She led the Maratha resistance against Aurangzeb during the final years of his reign, keeping the Mughal army at bay.
Impact of Aurangzeb’s Territorial Expansion
- Overextension of the Empire: Aurangzeb’s prolonged campaigns, especially in the Deccan, overstretched the Mughal administration and military resources. The empire became too large and complex to govern effectively.
- Rebellions and Resistance Movements: The annexation of independent kingdoms and regions like the Deccan Sultanates and Maratha territories led to persistent resistance from local rulers and populations. The Marathas, in particular, emerged as a formidable force that would later challenge Mughal authority and establish their own empire.
- Economic Strain: Aurangzeb’s campaigns drained the imperial treasury and led to economic difficulties. The empire’s wealth, which had peaked under his predecessors, began to decline as revenues were consumed by constant warfare.
- Weakening of Mughal Authority: Aurangzeb’s failure to fully subjugate the Marathas, combined with growing discontent among other regional powers, weakened Mughal authority and set the stage for the empire’s decline in the 18th century.
Conclusion
Aurangzeb’s policy of territorial consolidation and expansion transformed the Mughal Empire into one of the largest empires in the world. However, this came at great cost. His campaigns in the Deccan, Maratha territories, and Assam stretched the empire’s resources, leading to widespread rebellions and weakening central authority. By the time of his death in 1707, the Mughal Empire had reached its territorial zenith, but its foundations had been significantly weakened, setting the stage for its eventual decline in the decades that followed.
