The Neolithic period (also known as the New Stone Age) marks a significant turning point in human history. It is defined by the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a more settled, agricultural way of life. The Neolithic period in India began around 7000 BCE and lasted until around 3000 BCE, though the dates vary depending on the region.
During this period, humans began to domesticate plants and animals, settle in permanent villages, and develop new technologies, particularly in agriculture and pottery. These changes laid the foundation for the rise of complex societies and the eventual development of urbanization in the later Chalcolithic and Bronze Age periods.
Key Characteristics of the Neolithic Period:
- Agriculture:
- The most important feature of the Neolithic period is the advent of agriculture, where humans learned to cultivate crops and domesticate animals. This shift from food gathering to food production allowed people to settle in one place and build permanent homes.
- Early Neolithic communities grew crops such as wheat, barley, lentils, and peas. In some areas, particularly in South India, millets and pulses were also cultivated.
- The domestication of animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and later, buffalo, provided a stable source of meat, milk, and labor (for plowing fields).
- Permanent Settlements:
- With the advent of agriculture, people could now live in one place for extended periods, leading to the development of permanent villages.
- Houses during the Neolithic were often made of mud, stone, or wattle and daub (a mixture of sticks and mud). The homes were usually small and rectangular or circular, with roofs made of thatch.
- These settlements were often located near fertile land, rivers, or lakes, where water was available for farming and daily needs.
- Tool Advancements:
- The Neolithic people used more sophisticated tools compared to earlier periods. Tools were primarily made from polished stone and were more varied in function.
- Tools such as sickles, axes, and grindstones became widespread. These tools were used for harvesting crops, clearing land, and processing grains.
- The use of stone tools for agriculture, construction, and food preparation is a hallmark of the Neolithic period.
- Domestication of Animals:
- In addition to cultivating crops, Neolithic people domesticated various animals, which became an integral part of their subsistence strategy. They domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs for food, milk, and other products such as leather and wool.
- Animals like oxen and buffalo were also used to assist in agricultural tasks, such as plowing fields.
Important Neolithic Sites in India:
India is home to a variety of Neolithic archaeological sites, each providing valuable insights into the way of life during this transformative period. These sites are spread across the subcontinent, revealing regional variations in culture, technology, and subsistence strategies.
1. Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan):
- Though not technically in modern-day India, Mehrgarh is one of the most important Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent. It is located in present-day Pakistan and dates back to around 7000 BCE.
- Mehrgarh shows evidence of early agriculture and animal domestication. The inhabitants of Mehrgarh grew barley, wheat, and dates and domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and goats.
- Excavations have uncovered mud-brick houses, granaries, and evidence of long-distance trade, suggesting that Mehrgarh was a well-developed agricultural settlement.
2. Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir):
- The Burzahom site, located near Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir, is a significant Neolithic settlement that dates back to around 3000 BCE.
- The people of Burzahom lived in pit dwellings, which were circular pits dug into the ground. These pits provided insulation during the cold winters of the region.
- Burzahom is also notable for its stone tools, pottery, and evidence of domesticated animals. The site also shows signs of hunting and gathering, suggesting a mixed economy of agriculture and foraging.
- Burzahom is famous for its burial practices. Human skeletons have been found in graves with stone tools and animal bones, indicating ritualistic burial customs.
3. Chirand (Bihar):
- Chirand, located on the banks of the Ganga River in Bihar, is an important Neolithic site that dates back to around 2500 BCE.
- The site has yielded a variety of stone tools, pottery, and evidence of agricultural activities. People at Chirand cultivated wheat, barley, and rice, and they also domesticated animals such as cattle and goats.
- The pottery found at Chirand includes handmade and wheel-thrown types, indicating the development of more sophisticated ceramic technology.
4. Piklihal and Tekkalakota (Karnataka):
- Piklihal and Tekkalakota are significant Neolithic sites in South India, located in the Raichur district of Karnataka.
- These sites show evidence of cattle herding and agriculture, particularly the cultivation of millets and pulses. The people of Piklihal and Tekkalakota lived in stone and mud-brick houses, suggesting a more settled lifestyle.
- The presence of ash mounds at these sites suggests that cattle herding played a central role in the economy and may have been associated with rituals related to animal husbandry.
5. Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu):
- Paiyampalli is a significant Neolithic site in South India, located in the Vellore district of Tamil Nadu. The site dates back to around 2000 BCE.
- The people of Paiyampalli practiced agriculture, cultivating crops such as millets and pulses. They also raised domesticated animals, including cattle and goats.
- Excavations at Paiyampalli have revealed stone tools, pottery, and evidence of early metallurgy, marking the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic period.
Neolithic Society and Culture:
- Social Organization:
- The Neolithic period saw the development of more complex and hierarchical societies. As people began to settle in permanent villages, they formed social structures based on family units, clans, and tribes.
- The advent of agriculture led to the accumulation of surplus food, which allowed for the differentiation of labor. Some individuals specialized in farming, others in tool-making, pottery, or animal husbandry, creating a more stratified society.
- Trade networks also began to emerge as surplus crops, pottery, and other goods were exchanged between different communities.
- Burial Practices:
- Neolithic people in India developed more elaborate burial customs compared to their Mesolithic predecessors. Graves were often furnished with grave goods such as pottery, tools, and ornaments, indicating a belief in the afterlife.
- Some Neolithic sites, such as Burzahom, show evidence of secondary burials, where human bones were disinterred and reburied, possibly as part of ritual practices.
- Art and Symbolism:
- Neolithic people in India began to develop ornamental art and symbols. Beads made from shell, bone, and semi-precious stones have been found at several Neolithic sites, indicating the use of personal adornment and possibly trade.
- While rock art is more commonly associated with the Mesolithic period, some Neolithic sites continue to show evidence of symbolic behavior through rock engravings and paintings.
Food and Subsistence Strategies:
- Agriculture:
- The Neolithic period in India marks the beginnings of agriculture. Crops such as wheat, barley, rice, millets, pulses, and peas were cultivated, providing a stable and reliable food source.
- Irrigation systems began to develop in some regions, allowing for more intensive agriculture. The surplus production of food enabled larger populations to be sustained, and communities became more settled.
- Animal Husbandry:
- Domesticated animals played a significant role in Neolithic subsistence. Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were raised for meat, milk, and labor (e.g., plowing fields). Buffaloes were also domesticated in some regions for agricultural work.
- The herding of animals, especially cattle, became central to the economy in many regions, such as in southern India, where cattle-herding was a dominant activity.
- Hunting and Gathering:
- Despite the shift to agriculture, hunting and gathering did not completely disappear during the Neolithic period. Wild animals were still hunted, and wild fruits, nuts, and roots were gathered to supplement the diet.
Pottery in the Neolithic Period:
- Pottery production is one of the defining features of the Neolithic period. The development of ceramics allowed for the storage of surplus food, cooking, and trade. Pottery from this period is often handmade, though wheel-thrown pottery begins to appear later in the Neolithic.
- The pottery was typically coarse, with simple designs, but over time, more decorative patterns emerged. Some pots were painted, while others were incised with geometric designs.
- Pottery styles varied by region, with distinct regional variations in shape, design, and function. For example, the gray ware and black-and-red ware pottery traditions emerged during this period and continued into later periods.
Conclusion:
The Neolithic period in India was a time of profound change, as human societies transitioned from hunting and gathering to agriculture and animal husbandry. This shift allowed for the development of permanent settlements, the accumulation of surplus food, and the rise of more complex social and cultural practices. Sites like Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Chirand, Paiyampalli, and Piklihal provide valuable insights into the lives of Neolithic people in India, offering a glimpse into their technology, art, subsistence strategies, and burial customs. The innovations of the Neolithic laid the foundation for the more advanced civilizations that would follow in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age periods.
