PM IAS UPSC CURRENT EVENTS JAN 25

A new study says Iron Age began hundreds of years earlier – in Tamil Nadu. Why this is important

Source: Indian Express

Syllabus: GS I Ancient History

Tamil Nadu: The Birthplace of the Iron Age

Context:
A landmark study has redefined the Iron Age timeline in India, placing its origins in Tamil Nadu as early as 3345 BCE. This discovery challenges earlier historical assumptions and underscores Tamil Nadu’s pioneering role in early metallurgy and technological advancements.

Iron Age in India: A Transformative Period

The Iron Age in India was a period of profound technological and societal change. Characterized by the use of iron tools and weapons, it transformed agriculture, warfare, and social structures. Previously thought to have begun between 1500–2000 BCE, recent evidence from Tamil Nadu now places its origins at 3345 BCE, significantly earlier than previously believed.

Key Findings of the Study

1. Title of the Report: Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu
2. Authors: K. Rajan (Pondicherry University) and R. Sivanantham (Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology).
3. Dating Techniques Used:
   • Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)
   • Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL)
4. Archaeological Sites Examined:
   • Sivagalai: Evidence from charcoal and potsherds dates iron technology to 2953–3345 BCE, with a paddy sample dating to 1155 BCE.
   • Mayiladumparai: Samples dated to 2172 BCE, surpassing earlier benchmarks for the region.
   • Kilnamandi: A sarcophagus burial dated to 1692 BCE, the earliest of its kind in Tamil Nadu.

Technological Advancements in Metallurgy

Advanced Iron-Smelting Techniques

The findings establish Tamil Nadu’s expertise in pyro-technology during the 3rd millennium BCE:

1. Kodumanal: Circular furnaces reaching 1300°C, enabling sponge iron production.
2. Chettipalayam and Perungalur: Featured innovative smelting techniques, further highlighting Tamil Nadu’s metallurgical sophistication.

Comparison with Other Regions:

• While North India saw early iron use associated with Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures (Hastinapur, Kausambi), and Central India linked iron with Black and Red Ware (BRW) levels (Nagda, Eran), Tamil Nadu’s evidence demonstrates a simultaneous yet distinct trajectory, challenging the conventional narrative.

Iron Age: Catalysts of Socio-Economic Change

1. Agriculture and Urbanization:

1. Iron tools like axes and ploughs facilitated large-scale forest clearance and agricultural expansion.
2. This technological advancement contributed to the Second Urbanization (800–500 BCE) in the Ganga Valley and other regions.
3. Socio-Economic Stratification:
4. The surplus generated by iron-enabled agricultural growth fostered socio-economic hierarchies, leading to the emergence of chiefdoms, trading networks, and early states, which culminated in the Mauryan Empire.

Global Implications and Turning Point in Indian Archaeology

1. Rewriting the Iron Age Timeline:
   Tamil Nadu’s evidence pushes the Iron Age in India back by over a millennium, marking it as the earliest recorded instance of iron technology globally.
2. Challenging Global Narratives:
3. Globally, the Iron Age is traditionally attributed to the Hittite Empire (1300 BCE). Tamil Nadu’s findings challenge this timeline, emphasizing South India’s independent and advanced metallurgical innovations.
4. Significance for Indian Archaeology:
   These discoveries redefine India’s historical narrative, highlighting Tamil Nadu’s pivotal role in shaping early technological and cultural developments.

Conclusion: Tamil Nadu’s Legacy in Metallurgy

The groundbreaking evidence from Tamil Nadu not only alters India’s Iron Age timeline but also positions the region as a global pioneer in early metallurgy. This reflects the unique cultural trajectories of South India and underscores the importance of localized archaeological research in understanding India’s ancient past.

By contributing to a deeper understanding of India’s prehistory, this study emphasizes the enduring legacy of Tamil Nadu in advancing technology and shaping civilization.

Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Goa among top-performing States in NITI Aayog’s fiscal health index

Source: The Hindu

Syllabus: GS II Health

India’s Fiscal Health Index: A Tool for Strengthening State Finances

Context:
NITI Aayog’s inaugural report, Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2025, was recently launched by Dr. Arvind Panagariya, Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission. This index provides a comprehensive assessment of fiscal performance across 18 major Indian states, highlighting both achievements and challenges in public financial management.

Understanding the Fiscal Health Index (FHI)

The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) is a pioneering framework introduced by NITI Aayog to evaluate the fiscal health of Indian states. It emphasizes transparency, fiscal prudence, and sustainable financial management, offering policymakers actionable insights to enhance state-level governance.

The FHI is built on five key sub-indices, ensuring a multidimensional assessment:

1. Quality of Expenditure – Evaluates the effectiveness of social and economic sector spending.
2. Revenue Mobilization – Assesses the ability to generate tax and non-tax revenues.
3. Fiscal Prudence – Focuses on fiscal discipline and resource allocation.
4. Debt Index – Examines debt levels relative to GSDP.
5. Debt Sustainability – Evaluates whether economic growth can support debt servicing.

Key Highlights from the FHI Report 2025 (2022-23 FY)

Top Performing States:

1. Odisha (Rank 1, FHI score: 67.8):
   • Excelled in the Debt Index and Debt Sustainability, owing to low fiscal deficits, effective capital expenditure, and robust debt management.
2. Chhattisgarh (Rank 2):
   • Strength in the Debt Index and revenue growth driven by mining activities.
3. Goa (Rank 3):
   • Notable performance in Revenue Mobilization, driven by high tax efficiency and non-tax revenues.

Aspirational States:

States like Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal grappled with fiscal challenges, particularly in Debt Sustainability and Revenue Mobilization, highlighting an urgent need for fiscal reforms.

Sub-Index Insights

1. Quality of Expenditure:

1. States like Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh prioritized health and education, allocating significant resources to social and economic services.
2. However, Punjab and Rajasthan lagged in capital expenditure, impacting long-term development goals.
3. Revenue Mobilization:

2. Odisha, Goa, and Chhattisgarh excelled by leveraging non-tax revenues from mining and industrial activities.
3. States like Bihar and West Bengal faced challenges due to low own-tax revenues and over-reliance on central transfers.
4. Fiscal Prudence:

3. Odisha and Jharkhand maintained lower fiscal deficits, enabling better resource allocation for developmental priorities.
4. Persistent revenue deficits in states like Kerala and Andhra Pradesh created fiscal imbalances.
5. Debt Index:

4. Maharashtra and Gujarat demonstrated robust debt management, maintaining low debt-to-GSDP ratios.
5. Conversely, Punjab and Haryana faced rising debt burdens and high interest payments.
6. Debt Sustainability:

5. Odisha and Chhattisgarh showcased sustainable debt practices, ensuring economic growth outpaced interest payments.
6. States like West Bengal and Punjab exhibited fiscal stress due to persistent deficits.

Challenges and Recommendations

1. Revenue Diversification:
2. States must enhance their revenue base by improving tax compliance and tapping into non-tax revenue streams such as mining, tourism, and industrial activities.
3. Focus on Capital Expenditure:
4. Investment in infrastructure, health, and education is crucial to foster long-term growth and improve developmental outcomes.
5. Debt Management:
6. Adoption of comprehensive debt sustainability frameworks is necessary to reduce fiscal stress and ensure efficient resource utilization.
7. Transparency and Accountability:
8. Strengthened reporting mechanisms and adherence to fiscal responsibility norms will improve public trust and enhance fiscal discipline.

Conclusion

The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) is a transformative initiative aimed at benchmarking fiscal performance and fostering a culture of transparency and accountability among Indian states.

While Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Goa exemplify fiscal discipline and sustainable practices, aspirational states like Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal need targeted reforms to address their fiscal challenges.

By focusing on revenue mobilization, fiscal prudence, and debt sustainability, states can strengthen their financial health and contribute to India’s economic resilience and inclusive growth.

NITI Aayog’s FHI serves as a critical tool for achieving fiscal reforms, aligning state-level policies with national development goals, and ensuring sustainable public financial management for a robust future.

‘Use of loudspeakers not essential part of religion’: Bombay HC directs govt, police to take action

Source: The Hindu

Syllabus: GS II Polity and Governance

Bombay High Court Rules Loudspeakers Not Essential to Religion

Context:
In a landmark judgment, the Bombay High Court has ruled that the use of loudspeakers is not an essential religious practice and thus does not fall under the protection of Articles 25 and 26 of the Indian Constitution. The court further emphasized the need to curb noise pollution and safeguard public health, marking a significant step toward balancing religious freedoms with citizens’ rights.

Essential Religious Practices (ERP) Doctrine

The Essential Religious Practices (ERP) doctrine, developed by the Supreme Court of India, serves as a framework to identify practices that qualify for constitutional protection under Articles 25 and 26.

Key Features of ERP Doctrine

1. Freedom of Religion:
   • The doctrine ensures protection for practices deemed essential to a religion under the freedom of religion provisions.
2. State’s Role in Social Reforms:
   • It enables the state to regulate non-essential practices in the interest of public order, morality, and health.
3. Bifurcation of Practices:
   • It distinguishes between essential and non-essential religious practices, safeguarding only those integral to the religion.

Historical Context

1. Sri Shirur Mutt Case (1954):
   • The ERP doctrine was first articulated in The Commissioner, Hindu Religious Endowments, Madras v. Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Sri Shirur Mutt, laying the foundation for judicial scrutiny of religious practices.
2. Subsequent Rulings:
   • Durgah Committee, Ajmer v. Syed Hussain Ali (1961): Protected only those practices deemed essential to a religion.
   • Ismail Faruqui v. Union of India (1994): Held that the construction of mosques was not an essential practice of Islam.

Bombay High Court Ruling: Loudspeakers Not Essential to Religion

Court Observations:

1. Loudspeakers are not an essential practice of any religion and, therefore, are not protected under Article 25.
2. Noise pollution caused by loudspeakers constitutes a public health hazard, infringing on citizens’ rights to a peaceful environment.
3. Law enforcement agencies must act proactively to ensure compliance with noise regulations and cannot remain passive in such matters.

Case Background:

• Residents of Nehru Nagar, Kurla East, filed a plea against noise pollution caused by religious establishments, citing violations of permissible noise levels in residential areas.
• Legal standards:
  • Daytime limits: 55 decibels.
  • Nighttime limits: 45 decibels.
• Despite multiple complaints, local police failed to act, prompting judicial intervention.

Key Directives Issued by the Court:

1. Monitoring Mechanism:
   • Police must measure decibel levels using mobile applications and take immediate action against violators.
2. Penalties for Violations:
   • Initial violations should result in warnings. Repeated offenses may lead to fines, equipment seizure, and even license cancellation.
3. Anonymity of Complainants:
   • The court mandated that complainants’ identities must remain confidential to prevent retaliation.

Significance of the Ruling

1. Balancing Rights:
2. The judgment exemplifies the balance between freedom of religion and public health, showcasing how constitutional provisions can accommodate competing interests.
3. Upholding Public Health and Order:
4. By addressing noise pollution, the court reinforces the fundamental rights to health and a peaceful environment under Article 21.
5. Judicial Precedent:
6. This ruling aligns with prior judgments, such as the Supreme Court’s directions on firecracker usage and noise limits, emphasizing that public interest supersedes non-essential religious practices.
7. Accountability of Authorities:
8. The directives ensure that law enforcement agencies are held accountable for maintaining compliance with noise pollution norms.

Conclusion

The Bombay High Court’s judgment serves as a milestone in India’s evolving jurisprudence on the Essential Religious Practices Doctrine. By declaring that loudspeaker use is not an essential religious practice, the court underscores the primacy of public health and environmental sustainability over non-essential customs.

This ruling not only strengthens the state’s ability to regulate practices that cause public harm but also sets a precedent for future cases involving the intersection of religion and public welfare. As India strives to balance constitutional freedoms with modern governance imperatives, this decision is a critical step toward safeguarding citizens’ rights while respecting religious diversity.

ISRO’s historic 100th launch this month: Advanced navigation satellite with Made-in-India atomic clocks

Source: Indian Express

Syllabus: GS III Science and Technology

NVS-02 Satellite: A Leap in India’s Navigation Technology

Context:
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully launched the NVS-02 satellite aboard the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-F15). This launch is a key milestone in upgrading the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), commonly known as NavIC.

About the NVS-02 Satellite

1. Second-Generation Satellite:
2. NVS-02 is the second in a series of five second-generation satellites developed to replace the existing satellites in the NavIC constellation.
3. Launch and Orbit Placement:

2. The satellite was launched into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) by GSLV-F15.
3. It is set to replace the aging IRNSS-1E satellite and will be positioned at 111.75°E in orbit.
4. Indigenous Development:
5. Designed, developed, and integrated at U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), NVS-02 exemplifies India’s growing capabilities in satellite technology.

Features of NVS-02 Satellite

1. Technical Specifications:

1. Weight: 2,250 kg.
2. Power Capacity: ~3 kW.
3. Lifespan: 12 years, significantly longer than previous satellites in the NavIC system.
4. Payload Enhancements:

2. Navigation Payload: Operates across three frequency bands (L1, L5, and S bands) for enhanced signal accuracy and performance.
3. Ranging Payload: Uses C-band for precise ranging, similar to its predecessor, NVS-01.
4. Atomic Clock: Features the Rubidium Atomic Frequency Standard (RAFS) for highly accurate timekeeping, indigenously developed for improved precision.
5. Technological Advancements:
6. Incorporates L1 band signals, enhancing NavIC’s compatibility with global navigation systems such as GPS and Galileo.

Significance of the NVS-02 Satellite

1. Strengthening NavIC:
2. NVS-02 enhances NavIC’s functionality, providing accurate and reliable navigation for diverse applications, including:
   • Precision Agriculture: Optimizing crop yields and resource management.
   • Emergency Services: Enabling efficient disaster response and rescue operations.
   • Fleet Management: Improving logistics and transport monitoring.
   • Mobile Device Integration: Offering location-based services for consumer devices.
3. Global Compatibility:
4. The addition of L1 band signals improves interoperability with international navigation systems, fostering wider adoption and integration of NavIC across industries and devices.
5. Indigenization and Technological Self-Reliance:
6. The use of indigenous atomic clocks and advanced payload technologies showcases India’s self-reliance in cutting-edge space systems, reducing dependency on foreign technologies.
7. Geostrategic Importance:
8. Strengthening NavIC’s capabilities enhances India’s ability to offer regional navigation services independent of global systems like GPS, which is critical for strategic applications, including defense.

Conclusion

The launch of the NVS-02 satellite marks a significant step in India’s journey toward technological self-reliance and excellence in space-based navigation. With enhanced precision, improved interoperability, and broader applications, NVS-02 strengthens the NavIC system, underscoring India’s commitment to advancing its space infrastructure for both civilian and strategic purposes.

By continually upgrading its space capabilities, ISRO not only supports India’s developmental needs but also cements its position as a global leader in space technology.