July 15 – Current Affairs – PM IAS

Bombay High Court Flags Misuse of Matrimonial Laws

Syllabus: GS2/ Governance (Judiciary); Social Justice

In Context

In a significant recent observation, the Nagpur bench of the Bombay High Court has highlighted a concerning trend of “misuse of matrimonial laws” in India. While quashing a dowry harassment case, the Court emphasized that laws intended to strengthen marital bonds are often being misapplied, leading to a surge in protracted litigation, mental and physical harassment, and irreversible harm to families.

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The Bombay High Court’s Observations (July 2025)

The division bench of Justices Nitin Sambre and Mahendra Nerlikar made several pointed remarks while hearing a petition to quash an FIR filed under Sections 498-A (cruelty) and 377 (unnatural offenses) of the IPC, along with provisions of the Dowry Prohibition Act. The couple in question had obtained a mutual divorce and settled their differences.

Key observations by the Court included:

• Marriages as “Spiritual Unions”: The Court stressed that Hindu marriages are “sacrosanct” and a “spiritual union that binds two souls together,” lamenting that “small issues between two individuals are spoiling lives.”
• Misapplication of Laws: The judges noted that “Legislation intended to improve marital relationships, such as the Domestic Violence Act, the Hindu Marriage Act, and the Special Marriage Act etc., are frequently misused by parties.”
• Consequences of Misuse: This misuse, the Court observed, results in “multiplicity of litigation, mental and physical harassment, endless conflict, financial loss, and irreversible harm to children and other family members.”
• Trend of Naming Multiple Relatives: The Court criticized the “growing trend of filing first information reports against as many as persons from husband side,” calling for a “different judicial perspective” on such matters.
• Judiciary’s Role in Settlements: Emphasizing the right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution, the Court held that if reconciliation is not possible, matrimonial disputes should be ended “as early as possible” to prevent the ruination of lives. It stressed that courts should encourage and support amicable settlements.

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Matrimonial Laws and Concerns of Misuse

Indian matrimonial laws, such as:

• Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (Cruelty by husband or relatives): Introduced to protect married women from cruelty, particularly in dowry-related cases.
• Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: Aims to curb the social evil of dowry.
• Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (PWDVA): Provides civil remedies for women experiencing various forms of domestic violence.
• Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, and Special Marriage Act, 1954: Govern marriage, divorce, and related matters.

While these laws were enacted with noble intentions to protect women from abuse and ensure gender justice, concerns about their “misuse” have been raised by various quarters, including courts, men’s rights groups, and legal experts.

Arguments for “Misuse”:

• Vague Allegations: It is often argued that general or omnibus allegations are made without specific instances of cruelty, leading to the implication of entire families, including distant relatives, elderly parents, and even those not residing in the matrimonial home.
• Settling Personal Scores: Allegations are sometimes filed to gain leverage in divorce proceedings, child custody battles, or property disputes, rather than genuinely seeking redressal for cruelty.
• High Acquittal Rates: While data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) shows a high number of cases filed under Section 498A and other related provisions, the conviction rates are often cited as low, which some attribute to false or exaggerated complaints.
• “Legal Terrorism”: The Supreme Court itself, in some previous judgments, has used strong terms like “legal terrorism” to describe the potential for misuse of Section 498A.

Counter-Arguments to the “Misuse” Narrative:

• Under-reporting of Domestic Violence: Women’s rights advocates argue that domestic violence is massively under-reported, and the cases that do come to light represent only a fraction of actual incidents. Low conviction rates might be due to faulty investigations, lack of evidence, victim intimidation, or systemic biases rather than false complaints.
• Last Resort: For many women, approaching the police or courts is often a measure of last resort after enduring prolonged abuse.
• Systemic Issues: Challenges in the justice delivery system, such as delays, corruption, and lack of sensitivity, also contribute to the difficulties faced by genuine victims.
• Absence of Data on Misuse: There is no official data specifically tracking “false cases” or “misuse,” making it difficult to quantify the extent of the problem. Anecdotal evidence, while present, does not provide a complete picture.

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Judicial Interventions to Address Concerns

Indian courts, including the Supreme Court and various High Courts, have, over the years, issued guidelines and observations to prevent the arbitrary application of matrimonial laws, particularly Section 498A:

• Arnesh Kumar v. State of Bihar (2014): The Supreme Court issued specific guidelines to prevent automatic arrests in Section 498A cases, emphasizing the need for preliminary inquiry by police and adherence to Section 41A of CrPC (notice of appearance before arrest).
• Omnibus Allegations: Courts have repeatedly emphasized that general and vague allegations against entire families, without specific instances of cruelty, cannot be the basis for criminal proceedings.
• Mediation and Conciliation: Courts often encourage mediation and conciliation in matrimonial disputes to facilitate amicable settlements and preserve family harmony where possible.
• Quashing FIRs: High Courts frequently exercise their inherent powers under Section 482 of CrPC to quash FIRs and criminal proceedings in cases where the parties have reached a settlement or where the allegations are deemed baseless or an abuse of the legal process.

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Way Forward

The Bombay High Court’s recent observations underscore the ongoing need for a balanced approach to matrimonial disputes:

1. Strengthening Reconciliation Mechanisms: Promoting and adequately resourcing pre-litigation mediation and counseling centers can help resolve disputes amicably before they escalate into lengthy legal battles.
2. Sensitive Investigation by Police: Law enforcement agencies need to be sensitized to conduct thorough and impartial investigations in matrimonial cases, differentiating between genuine complaints and those potentially filed with malicious intent.
3. Judicial Scrutiny: Courts must continue to exercise caution and apply stringent scrutiny, especially when omnibus allegations are made, to prevent the innocent from being subjected to unwarranted legal harassment.
4. Awareness and Education: Increasing awareness among both men and women about their rights and responsibilities in marriage, as well as the correct application and purpose of matrimonial laws, can help prevent their misuse.
5. Data Collection and Research: Robust empirical research is needed to accurately assess the extent of domestic violence and the alleged misuse of laws, to inform policy decisions.
6. Gender Neutrality Debates: The broader societal debate around ensuring gender neutrality in certain laws, where applicable, without diluting the protection for genuine victims, needs to continue constructively.

Ultimately, the goal is to ensure that protective laws serve their intended purpose of providing justice and safety to those who genuinely need it, while simultaneously safeguarding individuals from potential abuse of the legal process. The judiciary’s repeated calls for amicable settlements reflect a pragmatic approach to reducing litigation burden and preserving the fabric of family and society.

Dowry Deaths in India: Long Investigations, Rare Convictions

Syllabus: GS1/ Social Issues (Women’s Issues); GS2/ Governance (Justice Delivery); GS3/ Indian Society

In Context

Despite stringent laws and decades of awareness campaigns, dowry deaths continue to plague India, with recent reports highlighting a distressing trend: investigations into these tragic cases are often prolonged, and convictions remain alarmingly rare. This systemic failure in delivering justice underscores the deep-rooted nature of the dowry menace and significant challenges within the criminal justice system.

Understanding Dowry Deaths

Dowry death is a specific criminal offense defined under Section 304B of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) (now Section 80 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023). A woman’s death is categorized as a dowry death if:

• It occurs within seven years of her marriage.
• The death is caused by burns or bodily injury, or occurs otherwise than under normal circumstances (e.g., suicide, unexplained death).
• It is shown that, soon before her death, she was subjected to cruelty or harassment by her husband or any relative of her husband.
• Such cruelty or harassment was in connection with any demand for dowry.

The punishment for dowry death is rigorous imprisonment for a term not less than seven years, which may extend to life imprisonment. Additionally, Section 498A IPC (now Section 85 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023) deals with cruelty by the husband or his relatives, which often precedes a dowry death. Section 113B of the Indian Evidence Act (now Section 118 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023) creates a legal presumption that if a woman dies within seven years of marriage due to causes other than natural circumstances, and she was subjected to cruelty or harassment for dowry shortly before her death, the husband or his relatives are presumed to have caused the dowry death.

Alarming Statistics and Trends

• Prevalence: According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data for 2017-2022, an average of around 7,000 cases of dowry deaths were reported across India each year. These are only reported cases; many more are believed to go unreported due to social stigma, fear, and lack of awareness.
• Slow Investigations: A significant proportion of dowry death cases face prolonged investigations. Data from 2022 indicates that for over 6,000 cases where charge-sheets were filed, 70% of investigations lasted for over two months. Many investigations remained pending for more than six months.
• Abysmal Conviction Rates: Despite the high number of reported cases, the conviction rates for dowry deaths (under IPC Section 304B) are alarmingly low. Recent studies, including one by a Bengaluru-based women’s organization Aweksha, show conviction rates as low as 6.45% in certain regions. Other sources indicate overall conviction rates well below 10%, with some suggesting only around 100 convictions annually out of thousands of cases sent to trial.
• High Acquittal/Pendency: Over 90% of dowry death cases remain pending in courts, or result in acquittals, plea bargains, or withdrawn complaints. This signifies a major bottleneck in the justice delivery system.

Key Challenges Leading to Low Convictions

Several systemic and societal factors contribute to the long investigations and low conviction rates in dowry death cases:

1. Inadequate and Delayed Investigations:
   • Lack of Urgency: Police often do not treat dowry death complaints with the urgency they require, leading to crucial evidence being lost or tampered with.
   • Procedural Lapses: Delays in filing charge sheets, improper collection of forensic evidence, and lack of specialized training for investigators hinder the prosecution’s case.
   • Police-Judiciary Disconnect: Poor coordination between investigating agencies and the prosecution can weaken the case during trial.
2. Witness Hostility:
   • Family Pressure: The victim’s family, often under immense social pressure, fear of retaliation, or after reaching a compromise, may turn hostile during the trial.
   • Prolonged Trials: The lengthy judicial process exhausts witnesses, making them unwilling to participate or causing them to forget crucial details. Investigators often get transferred, making it difficult to retain witnesses.
3. Lack of Corroborative Evidence:
   • Dowry deaths often occur within the confines of the marital home, with few or no direct eyewitnesses.
   • Reliance on circumstantial evidence and dying declarations (though legally significant) requires meticulous collection and presentation, which can be challenging.
   • Proving “cruelty soon before death” and its direct link to “dowry demand” can be difficult without strong corroborating evidence.
4. Societal Factors:
   • Under-reporting: Fear of social stigma, pressure from the marital family, or societal indifference often leads to cases going unreported.
   • Patriarchy and Gender Inequality: The deep-rooted patriarchal mindset views women as commodities and financial burdens, perpetuating dowry demands and often normalizing abuse.
   • Lack of Awareness: Many women, especially in rural areas, are unaware of their legal rights or fear retaliation for reporting abuse.
5. Judicial Bottlenecks:
   • Case Pendency: The sheer volume of cases, coupled with limited judicial resources, leads to significant delays in trials.
   • Burden of Proof: While Section 113B of the Indian Evidence Act creates a presumption of dowry death, the prosecution still needs to establish the foundational facts of cruelty and dowry demand, which can be challenging.
   • Acquittals on Technical Grounds: Cases may be acquitted due to minor procedural flaws or insufficient evidence.

Recent Cases Highlighting the Issue

Recent incidents across states like Uttar Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Tamil Nadu have brought the issue back into focus. These include instances of women being burned alive, forced to commit suicide, or subjected to severe torture over unfulfilled dowry demands, often within months of marriage. While some convictions, often relying on dying declarations, do occur, they remain outliers against the backdrop of systemic failures.

Way Forward

Addressing the low conviction rate in dowry death cases requires a multi-pronged approach encompassing legal, investigative, and societal reforms:

1. Strengthening Investigations:
   • Specialized Units: Establish dedicated, well-trained, and gender-sensitized investigation units within the police force to handle dowry-related crimes.
   • Forensic Protocols: Strengthen forensic and investigative protocols to ensure timely and proper collection of evidence.
   • Digital Evidence: Train investigators to effectively collect and utilize digital evidence (e.g., call records, messages) in such cases.
2. Judicial Reforms:
   • Fast-Track Courts: Establish more fast-track courts specifically for dowry death cases to expedite trials and reduce pendency.
   • Legal Aid: Ensure robust legal aid and counseling for victims’ families to help them navigate the complex legal process and prevent witnesses from turning hostile.
   • Judicial Sensitization: Continuous sensitization of judges and prosecutors to the nuances of dowry-related violence and the importance of circumstantial evidence.
3. Community and Social Interventions:
   • Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch sustained public awareness campaigns against dowry, emphasizing its illegality and harmful consequences.
   • Community Vigilance: Encourage community vigilance and reporting mechanisms, providing safe spaces and support for women facing dowry harassment.
   • Economic Empowerment of Women: Promote women’s education and economic independence to enhance their agency and reduce their vulnerability to dowry demands.
4. Data and Research:
   • Improved Data Collection: Maintain granular, publicly accessible data on dowry-related cases, including investigation timelines, reasons for acquittal, and conviction rates, to identify systemic gaps.
   • Empirical Studies: Support research to understand the socio-economic factors influencing dowry practices and the effectiveness of existing laws.

The high number of dowry deaths and the low conviction rates present a stark picture of a societal evil that continues to thrive. Without comprehensive and sustained efforts to strengthen the justice delivery system and challenge entrenched patriarchal norms, many victims will continue to be denied justice, perpetuating a cycle of violence and impunity.

Appointment of Governors: A Persistent Source of Federal Friction

Syllabus: GS2/ Indian Polity (Federalism); Governance (Constitutional Bodies)

In Context

The appointment and role of the Governor in Indian states have consistently been a point of contention in Centre-State relations, often leading to friction and accusations of political bias. Recent developments, including ongoing tussles between Governors and elected state governments over issues like assent to bills and university appointments, underscore the enduring debate surrounding this crucial constitutional office. The Supreme Court is even set to hear a Presidential reference on July 22, 2025, questioning the Court’s power to impose timelines on Governors and the President regarding assent to state bills, highlighting the unresolved constitutional questions.

Constitutional Provisions for Appointment

• Article 153: States that there shall be a Governor for each state. (A single person can be appointed as Governor for two or more states).
• Article 155: Stipulates that the Governor of a State shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal. In practice, this means the Union government (Council of Ministers advising the President) decides the appointment.
• Article 156: States that the Governor holds office during the pleasure of the President for a term of five years. However, he can be removed by the President at any time.

Qualifications for Appointment (Article 157):

• Must be a citizen of India.
• Must have completed the age of 35 years.

Conditions of Governor’s Office (Article 158):

• Must not be a member of either House of Parliament or a State Legislature. If so, they are deemed to have vacated their seat upon assuming office.
• Must not hold any other office of profit.

Conventions Regarding Appointment:

Over time, certain conventions have evolved, though they are often not strictly followed:

• Outsider: The person appointed as Governor should be an “outsider,” meaning they should not belong to the state where they are being appointed, to ensure impartiality and prevent involvement in local politics.
• Consultation with CM: The President (in effect, the Central government) should consult the Chief Minister of the state concerned before appointing the Governor. This convention aims to foster better Centre-State relations and ensure the Governor enjoys some confidence of the state government.

The Governor’s Role: Constitutional Head vs. Central Agent

The Governor serves a dual role:

1. Constitutional Head of the State: As per Article 154, the executive power of the State is vested in the Governor and is exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him. However, under Article 163, the Governor generally acts on the “aid and advice” of the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, making him a titular head.
2. Link between Centre and State: The Governor acts as a vital link between the Union and the State. He is expected to function as an impartial guardian of the Constitution in the state.

Controversies Surrounding Appointments and Functioning

The appointment and actions of Governors have frequently sparked controversy, primarily due to:

• Political Appointments: Governors are often perceived as political appointees, usually former politicians or bureaucrats with strong affiliations to the ruling party at the Centre. This raises doubts about their impartiality, especially when the state government is run by an opposition party.
• Lack of Consultation with CM: The convention of consulting the Chief Minister before appointment is often ignored, leading to protests from state governments who feel a Governor is being imposed on them.
• “Pleasure of the President” and Removals: The “pleasure of the President” clause implies that the Governor can be removed at the will of the Central government, often without specified grounds. This makes the office vulnerable to political pressures and undermines its independence.
• Misuse of Discretionary Powers:
  • Inviting Parties to Form Government: In case of a hung assembly, the Governor’s discretion in inviting a party or coalition to form the government has often been criticized for showing political bias.
  • Assent to Bills (Article 200/201): Delays in granting assent to bills passed by the state legislature, or reserving bills for the President’s consideration without valid constitutional grounds, has become a major flashpoint. The Supreme Court, in its April 8, 2025 judgment (Tamil Nadu Governor case), had emphasized that Governors cannot indefinitely delay decisions on bills and must act within a reasonable timeframe. The ongoing Presidential reference will revisit these aspects.
  • Recommendation for President’s Rule (Article 356): Historically, Article 356 (imposition of President’s Rule) has been notoriously misused, with Governors often accused of acting as agents of the Centre to dismiss state governments run by opposition parties.
  • Interference in University Affairs: In some states, Governors, as Chancellors of state universities, have clashed with state governments over appointments of Vice-Chancellors, leading to administrative paralysis in higher education. (e.g., ongoing issues in Kerala).

Recommendations of Various Commissions:

Several commissions have examined Centre-State relations and made recommendations regarding the Governor’s appointment and role:

1. Sarkaria Commission (1983-1987):
   • Governor should be an eminent person from outside the state, not too actively involved in politics, especially in the recent past.
   • Chief Minister should be consulted before the appointment.
   • The Governor’s tenure should be five years and should not be disturbed except for extremely compelling reasons.
   • After demitting office, the Governor should not be eligible for any other appointment under the Union or State government, except for a second term as Governor or election as Vice-President/President.
2. Punchhi Commission (2007-2010):
   • Recommended a fixed tenure of five years for the Governor.
   • Suggested a provision for impeachment of the Governor by the state legislature, similar to the President’s impeachment process, to remove the “pleasure of the President” doctrine.
   • Governor should be appointed by a committee comprising the Prime Minister, Home Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha, and the Chief Minister of the respective state.
   • Clarified that Article 163 does not grant the Governor broad discretionary power to act independently of their Council of Ministers.
   • Recommended that the Governor should decide on state bills within six months.
   • Proposed that Governors should no longer hold positions like Chancellors of universities, restricting their responsibilities strictly to constitutional duties.

Way Forward

The persistent controversies surrounding Governor appointments and their functioning necessitate comprehensive reforms to uphold the spirit of cooperative federalism and democratic principles:

• Codification of Conventions: While challenging, formalizing the convention of consulting the Chief Minister and ensuring an “outsider” status for Governors could reduce friction.
• Transparent Appointment Process: A more transparent and consultative appointment process, perhaps involving a committee as suggested by the Punchhi Commission, could enhance the credibility of the office.
• Clarity on Discretionary Powers: The Supreme Court’s judgments, like the one addressing delays in bill assent, are crucial in defining the boundaries of discretionary powers and ensuring the Governor acts within constitutional limits. The upcoming Presidential reference will be significant in this regard.
• Security of Tenure: Providing greater security of tenure to Governors, potentially through an impeachment process or clearer grounds for removal, could foster impartiality and reduce the perception of them being Central agents.
• Upholding Constitutional Morality: All stakeholders, including the Centre, states, and the Governors themselves, must uphold constitutional morality and prioritize the smooth functioning of democratic governance over political gains.
• Role of Inter-State Council: The Inter-State Council can be effectively utilized as a forum for dialogue and dispute resolution concerning the Governor’s role and appointments.

The office of the Governor is vital for the proper functioning of the Indian federal system. Reforming its appointment process and ensuring its neutral functioning is essential for strengthening democratic governance and fostering healthier Centre-State relations.

Corporate Investment Lagging Behind in India: An Overview

Despite significant government initiatives and a seemingly robust macroeconomic environment, private corporate investment in India has remained sluggish, often referred to as “lagging behind.” While public capital expenditure (capex) has seen a substantial push, the expected “crowding-in” effect on private investment has been slower than anticipated. This situation poses a challenge to India’s long-term growth aspirations.

Current Trends in Corporate Capex (FY2024-25 and FY2025-26 Outlook)

Recent surveys, such as the Forward-Looking Survey on Private Sector CAPEX Investment Intentions by the Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation (MoSPI), offer mixed signals:

• FY2024-25: Estimated provisional capital expenditure per enterprise for acquiring new assets stands at ₹172.2 crore, indicating a strong year for private capex. Overall, there’s been a 66.3% increase in aggregate capex (unweighted) over the four-year period from 2021-22 to 2024-25. A significant portion of this capex (nearly 53.1%) was utilized for purchasing machinery & equipment.
• FY2025-26 Outlook: The survey projects a potential decline of around 25% in private corporate sector capital expenditure to ₹4.88 lakh crore in FY2025-26 from ₹6.56 lakh crore in FY2025. This reflects a more cautious approach by firms after a strong capex cycle in the preceding year.
• Sectoral Trends: Manufacturing continues to account for the largest share of intended capex (43.8%), followed by Information and Communication Activities, and Transportation and Storage. The ‘Electricity, Gas, Steam, and Air Conditioning Supply’ sector has shown the highest Gross Fixed Assets (GFA) per enterprise.
• Purpose of Investment: In FY2024-25, nearly half of the private corporate sector’s capex was for income generation (49.6%), while a significant portion (30.1%) was directed towards upgradation of existing assets.

While there are signs of growth in overall capex over the medium term, the pace and breadth of new, large-scale (greenfield) private investments remain a concern. Most current investments are brownfield expansions (of existing units), often funded through internal accruals rather than fresh bank borrowings.

Reasons for Lagging Corporate Investment

Several factors are contributing to this sluggishness:

1. Weak Demand Environment: This is arguably the most significant factor. Investment decisions are fundamentally driven by expected demand. Despite higher corporate profits (partly due to corporate tax cuts), low consumer demand, particularly in the mass market segments, disincentivizes companies from expanding capacity. Firms are hesitant to invest when their existing facilities are not being used to full capacity (capacity underutilization).
2. Lower Investment to GDP Ratio: The corporate investment to GDP ratio has been significantly lower in recent years compared to the growth surge years (2004-2008). This indicates reduced confidence in long-term growth prospects, which is inadequate for India’s ambitious growth targets.
3. Delayed Impact of Government Capex: While the government has significantly ramped up its capital expenditure, especially in infrastructure (e.g., roads, railways), the “crowding-in” effect on private investment has a long gestation period. Large infrastructure projects take time to become operational and generate the ancillary demand that would encourage private sector expansion.
4. High Import Content and Low Labor Intensity in Public Capex: A portion of the government’s capital expenditure goes into imported machinery and technology, which reduces the direct demand generated for domestic industries. Furthermore, many infrastructure projects are machine-heavy rather than labor-intensive, leading to lower job creation and, consequently, limited boosts to consumption demand.
5. Global Trade Headwinds and Geopolitical Uncertainty: Protectionist policies globally, trade tensions (like US-India trade jitters, as seen with FPI outflows in July 2025), and supply chain vulnerabilities create an uncertain global environment. This discourages firms from undertaking export-oriented investments and makes them cautious about input costs.
6. High Borrowing Costs and Interest Rates: While the RBI has made efforts to ease liquidity, elevated interest rates in the past have increased the cost of financing large-scale projects, making companies prefer using internal funds over borrowing from banks for new projects.
7. Structural Bottlenecks: Issues like delays in land acquisition, environmental clearances, and challenges in labor reforms continue to act as deterrents for large-scale private investments. Shortages of skilled labor in certain sectors also pose a challenge.
8. Profit-Investment Causality: The assumption that higher profits automatically translate into greater investment is often flawed. As noted by economists like Kalecki, firms invest if they expect demand, not merely because they have profits. In a weak demand environment, profitability alone doesn’t incentivize capacity expansion.

Impact of Government Policies

The government has undertaken numerous policy measures to boost investment:

• Corporate Tax Cuts (2019): Reduced corporate tax rates from 30% to 22% (and lower for new manufacturing companies) to boost profitability and incentivize investment.
• Increased Public Capex: Significant allocation towards infrastructure development in successive budgets (e.g., ₹11.21 lakh crore for FY2025-26).
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Schemes: Introduced to boost domestic manufacturing and attract investments in specific sectors by offering incentives on incremental sales.
• Ease of Doing Business Initiatives: Efforts to simplify regulations, digitize processes (e.g., National Single Window System – NSWS), and decriminalize minor offenses.
• FDI Policy Liberalization: Most sectors are now open for 100% FDI under the automatic route.
• Monetary Policy Support: The RBI has tried to maintain a benign interest rate environment and ensure adequate liquidity.

While these policies have created a more conducive environment, their full impact on private capex is still unfolding, largely due to the counteracting effect of weak demand and global uncertainties. The government is “keeping close tabs on capex” and exploring measures to boost private activity, including potentially diverting more public investment to segments like urban infrastructure.

Way Forward: Measures to Boost Private Investment

A holistic strategy is required to reignite the corporate investment cycle:

1. Demand Revival: This is paramount. Measures to boost consumption demand, especially in rural areas and among lower and middle-income households, are crucial. This could involve direct income support, higher wage growth, and ensuring a more equitable distribution of national income.
2. Expediting Project Implementation: Shortening gestation periods for government infrastructure projects and ensuring timely disbursement of loans for large projects will help quicker “crowding-in” of private investment.
3. Targeted PLI Schemes and Streamlined Disbursements: Expanding PLI schemes to more sectors (e.g., defense manufacturing, precision engineering) and ensuring transparency and timeliness in incentive disbursements can boost investor confidence.
4. Improving Ease of Doing Business at State Level: While significant progress has been made at the national level, inconsistencies and bureaucratic hurdles at the state level still pose challenges. Focus on land acquisition reforms and labor law flexibility.
5. Financial Sector Support: Ensuring robust credit flow to industries, especially for greenfield projects, and addressing any lingering balance sheet issues for banks and corporates.
6. Resolving Global Uncertainties: While largely external, active engagement in trade discussions and clarity on trade tariffs can provide a more predictable environment for export-oriented investments.
7. Sector-Specific Interventions: Some sectors like technology (5G, AI, IoT), renewable energy, pharmaceuticals, and consumer goods are witnessing strong investment opportunities. Tailored policies and incentives for these high-growth sectors can further accelerate investment.
8. Boosting Business Confidence: Consistent policy messaging, stability in the regulatory framework, and continued focus on macroeconomic stability are essential for bolstering long-term business confidence.

Ultimately, corporate investment will pick up decisively when there is a strong and sustained belief in future demand growth. The government’s continued push on capex aims to provide that initial stimulus, but it needs to be effectively complemented by measures that address the underlying demand weaknesses and provide greater certainty for businesses.

Scientists Find Pheromone that Causes Locusts to Swarm: A New Frontier in Eco-Friendly Pest Control

Syllabus: GS3/ Science & Technology; Environment (Bio-Pesticides, Sustainable Agriculture)

In Context

A groundbreaking study, primarily by researchers at the Institute of Zoology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Peking University, has identified a specific pheromone, 4-vinylanisole (4VA), as the key trigger for locust swarming. This discovery offers a promising paradigm shift in locust control strategies, moving towards more targeted and environmentally friendly methods, crucial for global food security, including in regions of India frequently affected by locust invasions.

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Understanding the Locust Menace and Swarming Behavior

Locusts are a particular type of short-horned grasshopper, infamous for their destructive potential. Unlike regular grasshoppers, locusts possess the unique ability to undergo a dramatic transformation from a solitary, relatively harmless phase to a gregarious, highly social, and migratory phase.

• Destructive Power: In their gregarious phase, locusts form immense swarms, sometimes covering hundreds of square kilometers. A swarm of just one square kilometer, numbering around 40 million locusts, can consume as much food in a single day as 35,000 people. This voracious appetite makes them a severe threat to agriculture and food security, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.
• Indian Context: India has historically faced severe locust threats, especially from the Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria), Migratory Locust (Locusta migratoria), and Bombay Locust (Nomadacris succincta). The 2019-2020 outbreak that affected East Africa, Pakistan, and parts of India (including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh) was one of the worst in 25 years, causing widespread crop damage. India’s Locust Warning Organisation (LWO), established in 1939, plays a crucial role in monitoring and managing locust activity.
• Phase Transition: The shift from solitary to gregarious behavior is triggered by increasing population density and frequent physical contact among individual locusts. This interaction leads to neurochemical changes (like a surge in serotonin) that promote aggregation and coordinated movement. Pheromones, which are chemical signals, are essential for orchestrating this mass behavior.

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The Breakthrough: Decoding 4-Vinylanisole (4VA)

• Identification: The Chinese research team had initially identified 4VA in 2020 as a key aggregation pheromone in the migratory locust. This means that 4VA is a chemical signal that attracts other locusts, causing them to gather.
• Biosynthesis Pathway: The recent study, published in Nature, has unraveled the precise biochemical pathway through which locusts produce 4VA.
  • Dietary Link: It was discovered that 4VA production is directly linked to the locusts’ diet. Specifically, a common amino acid found in plants, phenylalanine, acts as a precursor.
  • Key Enzymes: When locusts ingest phenylalanine, two crucial enzymes, 4VPMT1 and 4VPMT2, are involved in converting a non-aggregating compound (4VP) into 4VA. 4VPMT1 appears to be the primary enzyme driving this conversion.
• Mechanism: After a locust feeds and digests phenylalanine, it releases significant quantities of 4VA from its hind legs. This airborne 4VA then acts as a potent attractant, drawing other locusts towards the source. The resulting aggregation and physical contact among locusts further trigger the release of serotonin in their brains, intensifying the swarming behavior.

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Implications for Eco-Friendly Locust Control

The detailed understanding of 4VA’s biosynthesis mechanism offers several innovative and environmentally conscious strategies for locust management, potentially reducing reliance on broad-spectrum chemical pesticides, which are often harmful to ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health.

1. Chemical Inhibition (Targeted Blockers):
   • 4-Nitrophenol (4NP): The researchers identified 4-nitrophenol (4NP) as a compound that can competitively bind to and inhibit the 4VPMT1 enzyme. This action blocks the conversion of 4VP into 4VA, effectively preventing the production of the aggregation pheromone.
   • Promise and Caution: When locusts consumed plants treated with 4NP, their 4VA production was significantly inhibited, making them less attractive to other locusts. While promising, 4NP is known to be environmentally toxic and persistent (up to two weeks in soil, over two months in seawater), requiring extensive safety testing before any large-scale application.
2. Genetic Manipulation:
   • Gene Silencing: The study successfully demonstrated that genetically disabling the 4VPMT1 gene in locusts prevented them from producing 4VA. These modified locusts remained in their solitary phase even under crowded conditions that would normally induce swarming. This opens avenues for genetic approaches in pest control.
3. RNA Interference (RNAi) based Biopesticides:
   • Precision Targeting: Recognizing the toxicity concerns with chemical inhibitors like 4NP, the researchers propose developing RNA interference (RNAi)-based insecticides. These would involve introducing specific RNA molecules that silence or “turn off” the genes responsible for producing the 4VPMT enzymes. This method offers high specificity, targeting only the locusts without harming other species or the environment.
4. Integrated Control Strategies: The study outlines a multi-pronged approach for future locust management:
   • Lure and Trap: Using synthetic 4VA or its mimics to lure locusts to specific trapping areas where fungal pathogens or small, localized pesticide applications can be used.
   • Disrupt Aggregation: Spraying 4VA derivatives or inhibitors in non-crop zones to disrupt the natural aggregation process in farmlands.
   • Monitoring: Detecting airborne 4VA signatures could provide an early warning system for tracking swarming trends and population dynamics.
   • Biological Control: Releasing lab-bred, non-gregarious (genetically modified or 4VA-inhibited) locusts into the wild to dilute the swarming population and reduce overall gregarious behavior.
   • Combined Approach: Integrating these new molecular tools with existing biopesticides (like fungal pathogens) and conventional localized pesticide use for a more sustainable and effective Integrated Pest Management (IPM) system.

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Significance for India and Global Food Security

This scientific breakthrough is particularly significant for India, given its recurring battles with locust incursions. By providing a pollution-free and highly targeted approach to locust control, it could:

• Reduce Environmental Damage: Minimize the widespread use of harmful chemical pesticides, protecting soil health, water bodies, and biodiversity.
• Enhance Food Security: Offer a more effective and sustainable method to safeguard crops from devastating locust swarms, ensuring food availability for millions.
• Promote Sustainable Agriculture: Align with India’s broader goals of promoting sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural practices.
• Advance Agricultural R&D: Position India to potentially collaborate on or develop its own research in this cutting-edge field of behavioral ecology and molecular biology for pest management.

While large-scale field deployment of these new methods will require further testing and regulatory approvals, the discovery of 4VA and its pathway marks a pivotal moment in the fight against locust plagues, promising a future where pest control is both effective and ecologically responsible.

Machilipatnam: Reawakening of an Ancient Port

Syllabus: GS1/ Ancient History

Context

• Machilipatnam (Masulipatnam), a historic port town is witnessing a revival. 

Machilipatnam in Ancient India

• Machilipatnam (Masulipatnam), is a historic port town at the mouth of the Krishna River on the Bay of Bengal.
• Early Maritime Significance:
  • The region was known as Masulipatnam or Maisolos (as per Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 1st century CE), and it flourished as an ancient seaport on the Coromandel Coast.
  • It served as a gateway to the Deccan, facilitating trade with Roman, Arab, and Southeast Asian traders.
• Satavahana Period:
  • Under the Satavahanas (1st century BCE to 3rd century CE), Masulipatnam emerged as a vibrant port for the export of muslin, spices, pearls, and textiles.
  • It was linked to inland cities like Amaravati and Dharanikota, which were major centres of Buddhism and commerce.
• Medieval and Colonial Revival:
  • In the 16th to 18th centuries, the port regained prominence under the Golconda Sultanate.
  • It became a key trading post for the Dutch, British, and French East India Companies, however shifted focus to Madras (Chennai) in the 18th century, diminishing Machilipatnam’s importance.

Port Cities of Ancient India

Port City	Dynasty/Period
Lothal (Gujarat)	Indus Valley Civilization
Arikamedu (Puducherry)	Cholas and early Tamil kingdoms
Kaveripattinam (Tamil Nadu)	Cholas
Sopara (Maharashtra)	Satavahanas
Tamralipta (West Bengal)	Mauryas and Guptas
Barygaza (Bharuch)	Indo-Greek and Kushan periods

Behdeinkhlam Festival: A Vibrant Celebration of the Jaintia Hills

Syllabus: GS1/ Art and Culture (Festivals of India); Indian Society (Tribal Culture)

In Context

The Behdeinkhlam Festival is one of the most significant and vibrant traditional festivals celebrated in Meghalaya, particularly by the Pnar community in the Jaintia Hills. Held annually in July, after the sowing season and with the onset of the monsoons, it’s a four-day cultural extravaganza deeply rooted in indigenous beliefs and practices, aiming to ward off evil, pray for health, and secure a bountiful harvest.

Origins and Significance

The term “Behdeinkhlam” is derived from two Pnar words:

• “Behdein” meaning “to drive away with sticks.”
• “Khlam” meaning “plague” or “pestilence.”

Therefore, the festival’s name literally translates to “chasing away the demon of cholera” or “driving away the plague.” Its origins are tied to a belief that a great plague once threatened the Jaintia community, and deities like U Mukhai, Mulong, Mooralong, and Musniang provided guidance on rituals to avert the disaster.

The festival holds profound significance for the Pnar people, who primarily follow the traditional ‘Niamtre’ faith:

• Spiritual Cleansing: It is primarily an invocation to God and the ancestral spirits to ward off evil spirits, diseases, misfortunes, and natural calamities, ensuring the well-being and prosperity of the community.
• Agricultural Prosperity: Being celebrated after the sowing period and at the beginning of the rainy season, it is a fervent prayer for a bountiful harvest and protection of crops from pests and diseases.
• Community Cohesion: The festival fosters immense community solidarity, unity, and communal bonds as families and clans come together to participate in rituals, honor ancestors, and strengthen social ties.
• Preservation of Culture: It is a vibrant expression of the Pnar identity, showcasing their indigenous beliefs, history, folklore, and rich cultural heritage through elaborate ceremonies, traditional dances, music, and art.
• Man-Nature Relationship: It underscores the deep reverence the Pnar community holds for nature and their ancestral traditions, emphasizing the harmonious relationship between humans and their environment.

Key Rituals and Practices

The four-day Behdeinkhlam Festival is characterized by a series of unique and symbolic rituals:

1. Beating of Roofs: One of the most notable practices involves young men symbolically beating the roofs of every house in the village with long bamboo poles. This act is believed to drive away evil spirits, plagues, and diseases from the homes and the community.
2. Sacred Tree Trunks (Dein Khlam, Symlend, Khnong): Polished, rounded, and tall trunks of trees (excluding pine) are felled from sacred forests. These are then ceremoniously carried into the village and erected in front of homes or in central community locations.
3. ‘Rots’ (Raths): Tall, intricately designed bamboo structures, sometimes towering 30-40 feet high, are constructed. These ‘rots’ are adorned with colorful paper, tinsel, and cloth, often depicting various themes, including social messages relevant to contemporary issues (e.g., environmental protection, women’s safety, AI’s role in society). They are carried in vibrant processions to a sacred pool.
4. ‘Cher iung blai’: A ritual where male tribal members enter a newly built thatched hut of grass and bamboo with spears and symbolically “kill” the demons inside, representing the expulsion of malevolent forces.
5. Immersion in Aitnar: On the final day, all the decorated ‘rots’ are taken to a central sacred muddy pool known as ‘Ka Aitnar’ (located in Longpiah, Jowai) or ‘Ka Biar Blai’ (in Tuber Kmai Shnong) and immersed, signifying the culmination of the cleansing rituals.
6. ‘Dad-lawakor’ (Football with a Wooden Ball): A traditional game similar to football is played with a wooden ball. Revellers, representing different localities, try to push a wooden log across the sacred pool.
7. ‘Iatan-Bhang’ (Tug-of-War): A unique tug-of-war game is played between two opposing groups over a large, stripped wooden log in a muddy trench (Wah-eit-nar), with participants smearing mud on one another. The winners are believed to be blessed with a more prosperous year.
8. Dances and Music: The festival is a sensory feast, filled with vibrant traditional dances performed by men in colorful attire, accompanied by rhythmic drums, pipes, and traditional music. Women do not participate in the dancing but prepare sacrificial food for the ancestral spirits.

Location and Dates

The Behdeinkhlam Festival is primarily celebrated in the Jaintia Hills district of Meghalaya, with the grandest festivities taking place in Jowai, the district headquarters. Other significant celebrations occur in places like Tuberkmai.

For 2025, the Behdeinkhlam Festival is observed annually from July 11 to July 14. A local holiday in West Jaintia Hills on account of the festival is declared on July 11, 2025 (Friday), and in East Jaintia Hills for Seinraij Tuber’s celebration on July 22, 2025 (Tuesday). Banks in Shillong will also be closed on July 14, 2025.

Cultural Significance and Tourism

The Behdeinkhlam Festival is not just a religious event; it’s a major cultural highlight that draws both local and international tourists. Its vibrant processions, unique rituals, traditional games, and lively dances offer a profound insight into the rich heritage and spiritual depth of the Pnar community, making it a powerful symbol of Meghalaya’s diverse and living traditions.

Pradhan Mantri Divyasha Kendra (PMDK): Empowering Divyangjan and Senior Citizens

Syllabus: GS2/ Government Schemes (Social Sector); Social Justice (Vulnerable Sections)

In Context

The Union Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, Government of India, has been actively expanding the network of Pradhan Mantri Divyasha Kendras (PMDKs) across the country. This initiative marks a significant step towards empowering Divyangjan (persons with disabilities) and senior citizens by providing integrated services and assistive aids, reinforcing the government’s commitment to inclusive development and last-mile service delivery. Recently, the 75th Pradhan Mantri Divyasha Kendra (PMDK) was inaugurated at Government Medical College, Badaun, Uttar Pradesh, on July 15, 2025, by the Union Minister of State for Social Justice & Empowerment, Shri B.L. Verma.

What is Pradhan Mantri Divyasha Kendra (PMDK)?

Pradhan Mantri Divyasha Kendra (PMDK) is a unique initiative conceptualized by the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, Government of India, to provide a comprehensive range of services and assistive devices under one roof for eligible Divyangjan and elderly beneficiaries.

• Implementing Agency: The PMDK initiative is spearheaded by the Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India (ALIMCO), a Central Public Sector Undertaking (CPSU) operating under the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD), Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment. ALIMCO is a ‘Miniratna Category II’ CPSU dedicated to manufacturing and distributing rehabilitation aids for persons with disabilities.
• Objective: The primary goal of PMDKs is to enhance the mobility, dignity, and independence of Divyangjan and senior citizens by ensuring easy access to high-quality, affordable (often free of cost) assistive devices and comprehensive support services. The initiative aims to have a PMDK within every 100 km radius across the country to reduce travel and logistical challenges for beneficiaries.

Key Services and Features of PMDKs

PMDKs are designed to provide integrated services, covering various aspects of assistance and empowerment:

1. Assessment and Evaluation: Comprehensive assessment of the individual’s needs to determine the most suitable assistive devices and rehabilitation support.
2. Counselling: Providing guidance and information to beneficiaries and their families on the available devices, their usage, and other support services.
3. Distribution of Assistive Devices: Offering a wide range of assistive aids and appliances, often free of cost to eligible beneficiaries, under two key schemes:
   • ADIP Scheme (Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase/Fitting of Aids and Appliances): For Divyangjan, providing devices like tricycles, wheelchairs, crutches, hearing aids, Braille appliances, artificial limbs, mobility aids, and advanced rehabilitation technologies. Eligibility usually requires a 40% or above Disability Certificate and a monthly income below a specified threshold (e.g., ₹30,000).
   • Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana (RVY): For senior citizens from Below Poverty Line (BPL) families, providing physical aids and assistive living devices for age-related disabilities.
4. Post-Distribution Care: Providing follow-up support, repairs, and maintenance services for the distributed devices, ensuring their longevity and continued utility.
5. Skill Development & Vocational Training: Some PMDKs also run vocational training programs aimed at building skills among persons with disabilities, promoting employment, and fostering entrepreneurship to enhance their economic independence.
6. Accessibility Focus: While catering to all types of disabilities, many newly inaugurated centers, such as the one in Kota, have a special emphasis on providing services for visually impaired individuals.

Impact and Significance

The establishment and expansion of PMDKs are crucial for several reasons:

• Last-Mile Delivery: These centers aim to bring services closer to the beneficiaries, especially in rural and remote areas, significantly reducing the travel and logistical challenges faced by Divyangjan and senior citizens.
• Inclusive Development: The initiative aligns with the government’s broader vision of ‘Accessible India, Empowered India’ (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan), promoting inclusive development and ensuring that no section of society is left behind.
• Empowerment and Dignity: By providing essential aids, PMDKs enable Divyangjan and senior citizens to lead more independent and dignified lives, enhancing their mobility and participation in society.
• Significant Outreach: With the inauguration of the 75th PMDK in Badaun, the network has significantly expanded its reach. As of now, the initiative has reportedly benefited over 1.40 lakh individuals with assistive devices worth more than ₹179.15 lakh. The government aims to further expand this network, with a target of 300 PMDKs in the future.
• Addressing Disability Statistics: As per Census 2011, there are 26.8 million persons with disabilities in India (2.21% of the total population), and the number of senior citizens is rapidly growing (expected to reach 173 million by 2026). PMDKs play a vital role in addressing the needs of these large demographic groups.

Way Forward

The Pradhan Mantri Divyasha Kendra initiative is a commendable step towards creating a more inclusive and accessible society. To further strengthen its impact, continuous efforts are needed in:

• Expanding Reach: Achieving the target of 300 PMDKs and ensuring their equitable distribution across all states and remote regions.
• Quality and Timeliness: Maintaining high standards in the quality of assistive devices and ensuring timely delivery and post-distribution support.
• Awareness and Outreach: Intensifying awareness campaigns to ensure that all eligible beneficiaries, especially in underserved areas, are aware of the PMDK services.
• Skilling and Employment: Further integrating vocational training and employment support services within PMDKs to promote economic empowerment.
• Leveraging Technology: Utilizing technology for better assessment, inventory management, and follow-up, and exploring the use of AI for personalized assistive solutions.

By focusing on these areas, PMDKs can become true centers of empowerment, fulfilling the government’s commitment to creating an India where every individual, regardless of their physical abilities, has the opportunity to live a life of dignity and self-reliance.