India-China Relations and SCO Summit
Syllabus GS Paper 2:
- India and its neighbourhood- relations.
- Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.
Context The recent Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit brought the Indian and Chinese leadership to the same platform. While formal bilateral meetings were limited, the summit provided a crucial opportunity to observe the dynamics of the India-China relationship, particularly in the backdrop of ongoing border tensions and a complex regional security landscape.
- Geopolitical Significance:
- Border Dispute: The unresolved border issue, particularly in Ladakh, remains the core friction point. Discussions at such multilateral forums are key to de-escalating tensions and exploring diplomatic resolutions.
- Regional Hegemony: Both nations vie for influence in Asia. The SCO platform becomes a stage to project soft power and diplomatic clout, especially concerning Central Asia and the wider Eurasian region.
- Strategic Autonomy: India’s participation in groupings like the SCO while maintaining its relationships with the US and the West demonstrates its commitment to strategic autonomy.
- Economic Dimension:
- Trade Imbalance: India’s significant trade deficit with China remains a persistent concern. The summit provided a backdrop for discussions on diversifying supply chains and reducing dependence on Chinese imports.
- Connectivity Projects: The SCO provides a forum to discuss connectivity initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). India’s stance remains one of opposition due to sovereignty concerns, particularly with the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).
- Global Economic Cooperation: Both nations, as major engines of global growth, are critical for shaping the future of the world economy. Collaboration on issues like climate change and supply chain resilience is crucial.
- Security and Defence:
- Counter-Terrorism: The SCO’s focus on counter-terrorism through its Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) is a key area of cooperation. Both India and China have a shared interest in combating cross-border terrorism.
- Military Confidence-Building: While direct military-to-military talks are ongoing, summits like the SCO provide a political impetus for building confidence and preventing future border stand-offs.
- Cyber Security: The increasing digital interconnectedness necessitates a framework for cyber security. Discussions within the SCO can lay the groundwork for a regional approach to this issue.
- Social and Cultural:
- Cultural Diplomacy: The SCO framework allows for the promotion of cultural and people-to-people exchanges, which can help in building trust and understanding at a non-governmental level.
- Science and Technology: Cooperation in areas like space exploration, artificial intelligence, and digital technology can be mutually beneficial and contribute to global progress.
Facts
- The SCO was founded in 2001. Its member states currently include India, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
- India joined the SCO as a full member in 2017.
- The SCO’s primary goals are to strengthen mutual trust, promote effective cooperation in politics, trade, economy, science, and technology, and jointly counter terrorism, extremism, and separatism.
Way Forward
- Continued Dialogue: Maintaining diplomatic and military-level dialogue is paramount to manage the border issue and prevent miscalculations.
- Strengthening Multilateralism: Using platforms like the SCO to address common challenges and foster trust is crucial, even amidst bilateral tensions.
- Economic Diversification: India must continue its efforts to diversify its trade relationships and reduce its economic dependence on China.
- Strategic Clarity: India needs to maintain a clear and consistent position on issues of sovereignty and territorial integrity while engaging with China.
Conclusion India-China relations at the SCO summit showcased a complex interplay of competition and cooperation. While the summit offered a platform for managing tensions, the fundamental issues of the border dispute and strategic competition remain. For India, leveraging multilateral forums while maintaining a strong bilateral position is key to navigating this critical relationship and safeguarding its national interests.
Sample Mains Question “Despite persistent border tensions, India and China continue to engage in multilateral forums like the SCO. Discuss the significance of such engagement in navigating the complexities of their bilateral relationship. Also, critically analyze the challenges and opportunities for India within the SCO framework.” (250 words, 15 marks)
India-Japan Strategic Partnership: An Analysis of Bilateral Relations in 2025
Syllabus GS Paper 2:
- Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.
- Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
Context The recent India-Japan Annual Summit underscored the deepening of the “Special Strategic and Global Partnership,” with new agreements on security, technology, and economic cooperation. The leaders’ discussions focused on reinforcing their shared vision for a free, open, and rules-based Indo-Pacific, with Japan reiterating its commitment to invest in India’s growth story.
- Economic Cooperation and Investment:
- The cornerstone of the renewed partnership is the pledged private investment target from Japan, aimed at boosting India’s economic growth and infrastructure. This goes beyond official development assistance (ODA) and signifies a greater confidence of Japanese businesses in the Indian market.
- Key areas of investment include infrastructure projects such as the Mumbai-Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail (bullet train) project, which is a symbol of technological collaboration. Further, Japanese companies are increasingly investing in manufacturing, renewable energy, and digital technology sectors in India, aligning with the “Make in India” and “Digital India” initiatives.
- Trade relations, however, still have room for growth. While there is a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) in place, efforts are needed to streamline trade processes and reduce non-tariff barriers to increase bilateral trade volume.
- Japan’s support for India’s urban development through the creation of smart cities and industrial corridors like the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) is crucial for India’s long-term economic transformation.
- Security and Defence Cooperation:
- The defense partnership has evolved from sporadic engagements to a robust and institutionalized framework. The focus is on interoperability and joint exercises.
- “Dharma Guardian” (Army), “Malabar” (Naval, with US and Australia), and “Shinyuu Maitri” (Air Force) are examples of regular joint military exercises that enhance mutual understanding and operational readiness.
- The Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA), signed earlier, has streamlined logistics and support for the two countries’ armed forces, making joint operations more efficient.
- Shared concerns about maritime security, particularly in the Indo-Pacific, have led to increased cooperation in domains such as anti-piracy operations and maritime domain awareness. Both nations are committed to upholding freedom of navigation and overflight.
- Geopolitical and Strategic Alignment:
- Both nations share a vision of a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific, which is a key pillar of their strategic alignment. They are committed to upholding international law, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
- The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad), which includes India, Japan, Australia, and the United States, is a key forum for coordinating their strategic interests and addressing shared challenges in the region, including humanitarian assistance, disaster relief, and counter-terrorism.
- As established democracies and major Asian powers, India and Japan are also collaborating on global platforms like the G20, G4, and the UN, to advocate for a multipolar world order and a reformed United Nations Security Council.
- Technological and Scientific Collaboration:
- Cooperation in advanced technology is a growing area. Japan is a leader in clean energy, and its expertise is vital for India’s transition to a green economy. Collaborations in hydrogen fuel, solar energy, and battery technology are key.
- Space cooperation is also a significant aspect, with joint research in satellite technology and space exploration.
- The two countries are also collaborating on cyber security, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and other emerging technologies, aiming to shape global norms and standards.
Facts
- The India-Japan relationship was elevated to a “Special Strategic and Global Partnership” in 2014.
- Japan is among the top investors in India.
- The Mumbai-Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail Project is a flagship project of India-Japan collaboration, largely funded by a soft loan from Japan.
- The Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA) was signed in 2020.
- The Indian and Japanese navies, along with the US and Australia, regularly participate in the Malabar naval exercise.
Way Forward
- Deepening Economic Ties: India must focus on creating a more business-friendly environment for Japanese investors, with an emphasis on ease of doing business and transparent policies. Diversifying trade to reduce India’s trade deficit with Japan should be a priority.
- Broadening Security Cooperation: The two nations should expand their security dialogue to include new domains like cyber and space security. Joint development of defense equipment could be a future area of cooperation.
- Enhancing People-to-People Connect: Promoting cultural exchanges, tourism, and student exchange programs will build a stronger foundation of mutual trust and understanding between the two societies.
- Climate and Green Transition: Leveraging Japan’s technology and India’s scale to create innovative solutions for climate change and a green transition is crucial for both nations.
Conclusion The India-Japan partnership, built on shared values of democracy and a commitment to a rules-based order, stands as a pillar of stability in Asia. The recent summit highlighted the multifaceted nature of their relationship, spanning from economics and technology to defense and geopolitics. By deepening this special partnership, both nations are not only securing their own interests but also contributing significantly to regional peace and global stability in an increasingly complex world.
Sample Mains Question “The India-Japan partnership is a cornerstone of India’s Act East Policy. Critically analyze the evolution of this relationship from a primarily economic one to a ‘Special Strategic and Global Partnership’ in the 21st century. What are the key challenges and opportunities for this partnership in the context of a changing geopolitical landscape in the Indo-Pacific?” (250 words, 15 marks)
India’s Economic Growth Story: An Analysis of Q1 FY 2025-26 GDP Data
Syllabus GS Paper 3:
- Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development and employment.
- Government Budgeting.
Context The recent release of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) data for the first quarter of fiscal year 2025-26 has painted an encouraging picture of the Indian economy. The data, which showed a robust growth rate, has reaffirmed India’s position as a leading global economic growth driver, buoyed by strong performance across key sectors.
- Key Drivers of Growth:
- The primary impetus for the Q1 growth was a strong showing by the manufacturing sector. This can be attributed to a combination of factors, including sustained government support through the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes, which have encouraged both domestic and foreign investment. The moderation in commodity prices has also reduced input costs, boosting corporate profitability and production levels.
- The services sector, the largest contributor to India’s GDP, continued its robust performance. Within services, the financial, real estate, and professional services segment recorded significant growth. The revival of contact-intensive sectors like trade, hotels, and transport, post-pandemic, has also played a crucial role in maintaining this momentum.
- The construction sector demonstrated resilience and strong growth, primarily driven by a surge in government capital expenditure on infrastructure projects. The focus on roads, railways, and urban infrastructure development has created a ripple effect, stimulating demand for materials like steel and cement and generating employment.
- Sectoral Performance and Contribution:
- Manufacturing: The sector’s growth exceeded expectations, signaling a recovery in private capital expenditure. The PLI schemes have not only spurred production but also helped in integrating India into global value chains.
- Agriculture: The agricultural sector’s performance, while stable, was influenced by monsoon patterns. While its contribution to overall GDP growth was modest in this quarter, its performance is critical for rural demand and controlling food inflation.
- Consumption and Investment: Private consumption, which is the largest component of aggregate demand, showed a healthy increase. This indicates a positive consumer sentiment and a recovery in household incomes. More importantly, Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF)—a measure of investment—registered a significant jump, underscoring the government’s strong push for capital expenditure and a gradual pickup in private sector investment.
- Challenges to Sustained Growth:
- Global Headwinds: The global economic outlook remains uncertain due to geopolitical tensions, high energy prices, and potential slowdowns in major economies. A global recession could impact India’s exports and capital inflows.
- Inflationary Pressures: While headline inflation has been managed, the risk of commodity price volatility and supply chain disruptions persists. High inflation could erode purchasing power and necessitate a tighter monetary policy, which might constrain growth.
- Unemployment: Despite the impressive growth figures, the issue of employment generation, particularly for the youth, remains a significant challenge. The quality and sustainability of jobs created are also a concern.
- Structural Reforms: To sustain high growth, India needs to continue with its structural reform agenda. Issues such as land and labor reforms, improving the ease of doing business, and strengthening the financial sector are crucial for unlocking the economy’s full potential.
Facts
- India’s GDP grew by a hypothetical 8.2% in the first quarter of fiscal year 2025-26.
- Manufacturing and construction were the leading sectors in terms of growth contribution.
- The government’s capital expenditure for the fiscal year has been significantly increased to boost infrastructure development.
- Private consumption constitutes over 60% of India’s GDP.
Way Forward
- Balancing Fiscal and Monetary Policy: The government’s focus on capital expenditure must be complemented by a prudent monetary policy by the Reserve Bank of India to manage inflationary risks.
- Boosting Private Investment: A key to sustainable growth is to crowd in private sector investment. The government must provide a stable policy environment, reduce regulatory hurdles, and ensure timely project clearances.
- Inclusive Growth: The benefits of high economic growth must reach all sections of the society. This requires a focus on job-intensive sectors, skilling initiatives, and strengthening social safety nets.
- Export Diversification: Reducing dependence on traditional markets and diversifying the export basket to include high-value goods and services will make India’s growth less vulnerable to global shocks.
Conclusion The GDP data for the first quarter of FY 2025-26 demonstrates India’s economic resilience and provides a strong foundation for future growth. The strong performance of key sectors like manufacturing, services, and construction, coupled with a revival in consumption and investment, is a testament to the effectiveness of recent policy measures. However, to achieve truly sustainable and inclusive growth, India must proactively address challenges such as global uncertainties, inflationary pressures, and the need for deeper structural reforms. The path ahead requires a strategic and calibrated approach to ensure that India’s growth story remains a beacon of hope in the global economy.
Sample Mains Question “India’s recent GDP data reflects a robust economic recovery driven by key sectors. Analyze the primary drivers of this growth and critically examine the challenges that could impede a path towards sustained and inclusive development.” (250 words, 15 marks)
Plastic-Degrading Microbes and Antimicrobial Resistance
Syllabus GS Paper 3:
- Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
- Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
Context A recent study on microbes found in the Sundarbans has revealed a dual environmental challenge. While these microbes show a promising capacity to degrade plastic, they also possess genes linked to antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a major global health threat. This finding presents a significant policy dilemma for India, requiring a careful balance between environmental clean-up and public health security.
- Scientific and Environmental Dimensions:
- The study identifies specific microbial communities in the Sundarbans estuary that produce enzymes capable of breaking down plastics like PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) and PEG (Polyethylene glycol). This discovery is a significant step towards developing bio-remediation strategies to combat the growing plastic waste problem, particularly in marine and coastal ecosystems.
- The research highlights that the presence of microplastics in these ecosystems acts as a breeding ground for microbes, creating a new niche for them to thrive. The degradation process of plastic can, in turn, be a source of novel enzymes that can be harnessed for industrial applications.
- However, the study also reveals a troubling correlation. The genes for plastic degradation are tightly co-located with genes for antibiotic and metal resistance. This suggests that the same selective pressures (pollution) that favor the evolution of plastic-degrading capabilities also drive the development of antimicrobial resistance.
- Public Health and Policy Implications:
- Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is one of the most pressing global health crises. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has highlighted it as a major threat to human health. The discovery of AMR genes in these environmental microbes raises the possibility of their transmission to human and animal pathogens through horizontal gene transfer, making existing antibiotics ineffective.
- This discovery poses a serious dilemma for policy-making. While the government is keen to support innovative solutions for plastic waste management, the potential risk of creating new hotspots for AMR cannot be ignored.
- There is a need for a strong regulatory framework to govern the use of such microbes in large-scale environmental clean-up projects. Uncontrolled release could lead to unintended consequences for public health and ecological balance.
- Integrated Approach for a Way Forward:
- The discovery necessitates an integrated, multi-sectoral approach. It requires the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change to work in tandem with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
- There is a strong case for increased funding for research into both plastic-degrading organisms and the epidemiology of AMR in environmental settings. The focus should be on understanding the gene transfer mechanisms and developing safe, contained bioremediation technologies.
- Stricter regulations on industrial waste and plastic pollution are paramount. The finding emphasizes that addressing the source of pollution is the most effective way to prevent both plastic accumulation and the evolution of new resistant microbes.
- India must also leverage its scientific expertise to contribute to global efforts on both plastic pollution and AMR, as these are transnational problems requiring international cooperation.
Facts
- The study was conducted on microbes found in the Sundarbans mangrove forest, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- The microbes were found to degrade common plastic types such as PET and PEG.
- Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health threat, and the WHO has a Global Action Plan on AMR.
Way Forward
- Inter-Ministerial Collaboration: Establish a joint task force between the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Health to create a comprehensive policy framework.
- Funding for Research: Allocate greater resources for research on safe bio-remediation technologies and the spread of AMR from environmental reservoirs.
- Stringent Regulation: Develop a robust regulatory mechanism for the use of genetically modified organisms and microbes in environmental clean-up.
- Public Awareness: Launch public awareness campaigns to highlight the interconnectedness of plastic pollution and public health risks like AMR.
Conclusion The study on the dual nature of plastic-degrading microbes in the Sundarbans highlights the complex challenges of sustainable development. While scientific breakthroughs offer hope for tackling the plastic crisis, they also reveal unforeseen risks to public health. For India, the path forward lies in a cautious, evidence-based, and collaborative approach that balances innovation with safety, ensuring that environmental solutions do not inadvertently create a new public health crisis.
Sample Mains Question “The discovery of plastic-degrading microbes with antimicrobial resistance genes presents a ‘policy paradox’ for India. Discuss the implications of this finding for environmental management and public health, and suggest a multi-pronged strategy to address this dual challenge.” (250 words, 15 marks)
Green Credit Programme (GCP) Methodology
Syllabus GS Paper 3:
- Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
Context The Union Environment Ministry has notified a new methodology for the Green Credit Programme (GCP), a unique initiative that aims to create a market-based mechanism to incentivize voluntary pro-environment actions. This new framework refines the process for earning and trading green credits, with a focus on enhancing transparency and encouraging broader participation.
- Conceptual and Regulatory Framework:
- The GCP is a novel concept in environmental governance, shifting from a command-and-control approach to a market-based instrument. It is designed to reward voluntary environmental actions through a tradable green credit. These credits can then be sold to other entities, allowing them to meet their compliance obligations, such as compensatory afforestation.
- The new methodology provides a more detailed and structured framework. It specifies the types of environmental activities eligible for green credits, which now include not only tree plantation but also water management, sustainable agriculture, waste management, and air pollution reduction. This multi-sectoral approach is a significant improvement.
- The methodology also introduces a digital platform for the entire process, from project registration to credit issuance and trading. This is aimed at ensuring greater transparency, accountability, and traceability of the credits, a key concern in any such market-based mechanism.
- Economic and Financial Implications:
- The program has the potential to create a new, vibrant green economy. By monetizing environmental actions, it can attract private sector investment in conservation and sustainable development. Companies can earn revenue from these credits, making environmental projects financially viable.
- For the government, it offers a way to leverage private capital for environmental goals without relying solely on public funds. It also provides a flexible mechanism for industries to meet their environmental obligations, reducing the burden of traditional, rigid regulatory frameworks.
- The tradability of these credits in an open market is a crucial feature. It will ensure that the price of the credits is determined by market forces, reflecting their real value and creating a strong incentive for entities to undertake pro-environment activities.
- Challenges and Concerns:
- A primary concern is the potential for a lack of genuine environmental impact. There is a risk that the program could be used by entities for “greenwashing,” where they purchase credits to meet obligations without undertaking meaningful environmental action themselves.
- Ensuring the credibility and integrity of the credits is paramount. A robust monitoring and verification system is essential to prevent fraud and ensure that every credit corresponds to a verified, tangible environmental benefit.
- The effectiveness of the program will depend on the demand for green credits. If the market is not robust, the incentive for participation will be weak. The government needs to ensure a strong regulatory pull to create a viable market for these credits.
- The methodology needs to be clear and simple for all stakeholders, from large corporations to small farmers and individuals. A complex system could deter grassroots participation, which is vital for the program’s success.
Facts
- The Green Credit Programme (GCP) was notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
- The program is rooted in the “Lifestyle for Environment” (LiFE) movement.
- The new methodology expands the scope of eligible activities beyond tree plantation.
Way Forward
- Strengthen Monitoring and Verification: Establish an independent and credible third-party audit mechanism to verify the environmental actions and prevent fraud.
- Encourage Diverse Participation: Simplify the registration and verification process for individuals and small entities to ensure the program is not limited to large corporations.
- Create a Robust Market: The government should create a strong demand for green credits by linking them to existing and future compliance obligations for industries.
- Public Awareness: Conduct extensive awareness campaigns to inform the public about the program and encourage their participation.
Conclusion The new methodology for the Green Credit Programme marks a significant step in India’s journey towards sustainable development. By using market forces to incentivize environmental action, it has the potential to transform conservation into a financially rewarding activity. However, the program’s success hinges on its ability to ensure credibility, prevent greenwashing, and create a truly robust and inclusive market. A transparent and well-regulated framework will be key to unlocking its full potential and making it a flagship initiative for a green economy.
Sample Mains Question “Critically analyze the new methodology for the Green Credit Programme (GCP). How does this market-based approach differ from traditional environmental regulations, and what are the key challenges and opportunities for its effective implementation in India?” (250 words, 15 marks)
Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025
Syllabus GS Paper 2:
- Governance, Constitution, Polity.
- Role of Non-governmental organizations, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders.
Context The Parliament has passed the Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025, a landmark piece of legislation that seeks to replace the archaic, colonial-era Foreigners Act, 1946, and several other related laws. The new bill aims to create a comprehensive and modern framework for regulating the entry, stay, and exit of foreigners in India, with a stated focus on streamlining procedures and enhancing national security.
- Key Provisions and their Implications:
- The Bill consolidates multiple existing laws, including the Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920, and the Foreigners Act, 1946, into a single, unified framework. This is aimed at reducing multiplicity and removing legal complexities.
- A significant provision is the shift in the burden of proof. The new law requires a person to prove their legal status in India, rather than the state having to prove they are an illegal immigrant. This provision is designed to empower law enforcement agencies and is being touted as a key measure to curb illegal immigration.
- It also introduces stricter penalties for foreigners who violate visa and entry conditions, including fines and imprisonment. This is intended to act as a deterrent to illegal stay.
- The Bill also contains provisions for mandatory registration of foreigners upon their arrival and regular updates on their stay, which will be maintained in a central database. This is a move towards a more organized and technology-driven system for tracking foreign nationals.
- Debate and Critical Analysis:
- The Bill has been a subject of intense debate, with civil rights groups and some political parties raising concerns about its potential misuse. The provision shifting the burden of proof has been criticized as it could be used to harass and deport vulnerable individuals, including refugees and asylum seekers, without due process.
- The human rights aspect is a key point of contention. Critics argue that the Bill, while aimed at national security, could infringe upon the fundamental rights of foreign nationals, who are also entitled to protection under the Indian Constitution.
- The legislation’s impact on India’s historical tradition of providing refuge to persecuted minorities is another area of concern. The Bill does not explicitly carve out a separate legal framework for asylum seekers, leaving their status ambiguous. This could put India in a difficult position regarding its international commitments.
- On the other hand, proponents of the Bill argue that a modern and robust legal framework is essential for national security in an era of increasing transnational crimes, terrorism, and organized illegal migration. They maintain that the Bill is not anti-immigrant but is necessary to regulate immigration in a sovereign nation.
- Way Forward for Implementation:
- The government must ensure that the Bill is implemented with a human-centric approach. Clear guidelines must be issued to the immigration and police authorities to prevent harassment and abuse.
- The digital database for tracking foreigners must be robust and secure to protect personal data.
- A separate and clear framework for refugees and asylum seekers, in line with international principles, should be developed and integrated into the broader immigration policy.
- Dialogue with civil society organizations and human rights groups is crucial to address their concerns and ensure that the law is not used as a tool for discrimination.
Facts
- The Bill repeals the Foreigners Act of 1946, which was enacted in the pre-independence era.
- It aims to create a unified framework for all immigration-related matters.
- The Bill introduces provisions for a centralized database of foreign nationals.
Conclusion The Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025, represents a major legislative overhaul of India’s immigration policy. While it seeks to modernize a fragmented and outdated legal framework for the sake of national security and efficiency, it also raises critical questions about human rights, due process, and India’s long-standing tradition of hospitality. The success of this new law will not only depend on its effective implementation but also on the government’s ability to strike a balance between its security objectives and its moral and constitutional obligations.
Sample Mains Question “The Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025, has been hailed as a modernizing step for India’s immigration laws. However, it also faces criticism for its potential impact on human rights and due process. Critically examine the provisions of the bill and discuss how a balance can be struck between national security and human rights in its implementation.” (250 words, 15 marks)
