Pakistan Shuts Airspace, Snaps Trade Relations with India
Syllabus: GS2/International Relations; GS3/Security
Context
- The Pahalgam terror attack has escalated tensions between India and Pakistan, leading to a series of retaliatory measures by both countries.
| Key Measures By India & Pakistan India’s Measures – Suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty – Closure of the Attari-Wagah Border – Cancellation of SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme (SVES Visas) – Expulsion of Pakistani Military Advisors – Reduction of Diplomatic Personnel Pakistan’s Retaliatory Measures – Airspace Closure – Trade Suspension – Diplomatic Retaliation like reducing the strength of India’s High Commission and suspension of Simla Agreement and all bilateral agreements with India. – Visa Restrictions except for Sikh pilgrims visiting the Kartarpur Corridor. – Labeling the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty as an ‘act of war’. |
Pakistan’s Airspace Closure for India
- Airspace refers to the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country, where it regulates the movement of aircraft.
- Its closure is governed by both domestic regulations and international frameworks.
Domestic Regulations
- Each country has exclusive rights over the airspace above its territory, as defined by its civil aviation authority.
- In India, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) oversees airspace management and closures during emergencies.
- Domestic laws allow governments to issue Notice to Airmen (NOTAMs) to inform airlines of restrictions.
International Regulations
- Chicago Convention (1944): It establishes rules for airspace sovereignty and international flight operations, under the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
- Article 1 recognizes the complete and exclusive sovereignty of nations over their airspace.
Impacts of Airspace Closure
- Flight Rerouting and Increased Costs: Indian carriers have been forced to reroute flights to Europe, North America, and the Middle East.
- Longer flight paths over the Arabian Sea and Central Asia are increasing fuel consumption and operational costs.
- Ticket prices for international flights may rise by 8–12%, affecting passengers.
- Economic Implications: The move mirrors Pakistan’s 2019 airspace closure, following the Indian Air Force’s air strikes in Balakot in retaliation for the Pulwama terror attack, which lasted five months and cost Indian airlines over ₹700 crore.
| Simla agreement – The Simla Agreement was a bilateral treaty between India and Pakistan, signed by former prime minister Indira Gandhi and then Pakistani president Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on July 2, 1972. – It was aimed to resolve conflicts and foster peaceful relations after the 1971 India-Pakistan war. 1. The war was triggered when India intervened in East Pakistan’s (now Bangladesh) fight for independence. Major Provisions – Both countries pledged to resolve all disputes, including the Kashmir issue, bilaterally without third-party involvement, marking a shift from previous international mediation. – They agreed to respect each other’s territorial integrity, political independence, and non-interference in internal affairs. – The 1971 ceasefire line in Jammu and Kashmir was re-designated as the Line of Control (LoC), with both sides committing not to alter it unilaterally. – The agreement called for the restoration of diplomatic, economic, and cultural relations, including the resumption of communication, travel, and trade links. – India agreed to release over 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war as part of the agreement, one of the largest releases in history. – India returned over 13,000 km² of territory seized during the war, but retained strategic areas in the Chorbat Valley. |
Combating Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) in India
Syllabus :GS 2/Health
In News
- Experts have raised concerns about the overuse of the potent antibiotic ceftazidime-avibactam, leading to reduced efficacy and increased drug resistance.
- The Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI) was urged to establish strict regulations to prevent misuse.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
- Antimicrobials (including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics) are used to treat infections in humans, animals, and plants.
- Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when pathogens no longer respond to these medicines, making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread, illness, disability, and death.
- AMR is a natural process but is accelerated by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in humans, animals, and plants.
Concerns
- India has one of the highest burdens of bacterial infections in the world.
- Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing public health crisis that threatens the effectiveness of antibiotics, leading to longer hospital stays, intensive care, and higher mortality rates.
- It is a complex issue influenced by factors such as overuse of antibiotics in humans, animals, and agriculture, along with inadequate infection control and sanitation.
- Socio-economic factors like poverty and lack of clean water further exacerbate the problem.
Efforts Made by India
- India is actively addressing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) through expanded genomic surveillance and collaboration between key government bodies like Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
- Recent breakthroughs, such as novel antibiotics like cefepime-enmetazobactam, cefepime-zidebactam, nafithromycin, and levodifloxacin, offer new treatment options for multidrug-resistant pathogens.
- These developments help reduce reliance on last-resort antibiotics like carbapenems and colistin.
- The Red Line Campaign was launched to create a public awareness drive to label prescription-only antibiotics with a red line.
- ICMR promotes Antibiotic Stewardship Programs (ASPs) in hospitals.
Conclusion and Way Forward
- India is leveraging its strong biotech ecosystem, high burden of infectious diseases, and capacity for affordable manufacturing to address the urgent need for new antibiotics to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
- By combining these strengths, India can accelerate its AMR fight and improve global access, especially for low- and middle-income countries.
- India’s success in this fight will depend on harnessing innovation across healthcare, governance, and society.
- By implementing the right policies, infrastructure, and supporting entrepreneurs, India can lead the global effort against AMR, setting an example for the world in tackling this critical public health threat.
- The use of antibiotics in food and animal production should be optimized, and there should be more careful consideration in using antimicrobial treatments.
India’s Record Cargo Movement on Inland Waterways
Syllabus: GS3/Infrastructure
Context
- India has achieved a record of over 145 million tonnes of cargo movement on inland waterways in 2024-25.
About
- The number of National Waterways increased from 5 to 111, with the operational length growing from 2,716 km (2014–15) to 4,894 km (2023–24).
- Massive infrastructure development includes Multi-Modal Terminals (MMTs), Inter-Modal Terminals (IMTs), community jetties, floating terminals, and green tech like Hybrid Electric and Hydrogen Vessels.
- Future Prospects: India aims to increase IWT modal share from 2% to 5%, and raise traffic to 200+ MMT by 2030 and 500+ MMT by 2047 under Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision.
Inland Waterways
- Inland waterways refer to navigable rivers, canals, backwaters, and creeks used for transportation of goods and passengers within a country.
- India has ~14,500 km of navigable waterways, but their usage is limited. 111 waterways have been declared National Waterways (NWs) under the National Waterways Act, 2016.
- Importance of Inland Waterways
- Economic Benefits: Lower transportation costs compared to road and rail.
- Fuel Efficiency: Uses 30% less fuel than road transport and 50% less than rail.
- Environmental Sustainability: Reduces carbon emissions and congestion on roads.
- Connectivity: Supports hinterland trade and rural economies.
- Tourism & Passenger Transport: Plays a role in ferry services and river cruises.
Criteria for Declaring a National Waterway
- The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) declares the National Waterway.
- National Transport Policy Committee (1980) recommended the following criteria for National Waterway:
- Navigable by mechanically propelled vessels of reasonable size.
- Channel width of ~45 m and depth of ~1.5 m.
- Continuous stretch of at least 50 km.
- Should serve multiple states, or connect major ports/hinterlands, or be strategically important, or serve underserved areas.
| Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) – Based on recommendations of the National Transport Policy Committee (1980), Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) was established in 1986 under the IWAI Act, 1985. – Ministry: Union Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways. – IWAI Functions: 1. Develop and maintain infrastructure on National Waterways (NWs). 2. Conduct feasibility studies. 3. Recommend declaration of new NWs. 4. Advise Central Government and assist State Governments. |
Challenges in Inland Waterway Development
- Seasonal water level variations affect navigation.
- Lack of infrastructure (terminals, dredging, and navigation aids).
- Slow adoption by industries due to underdeveloped routes.
- Competition from road and rail transport.
Policy Measures to Boost Inland Waterways
- Jalvahak – Cargo Promotion Scheme: It was launched in 2024 and has two key components:
- Financial Incentive: Cargo owners get a 35% reimbursement on actual operating costs for shifting cargo from road/rail to IWT, encouraging use of waterways.
- Scheduled Services: Regular cargo services have been introduced to boost reliability and predictability.
- Extension of Tonnage Tax to Inland Vessels: It was announced in 2025 during the budget, the tonnage tax regime has been extended to inland vessels registered under the Indian Vessels Act, 2021.
- Benefit: Provides a stable and predictable tax regime based on vessel tonnage rather than profits, thereby lowering the tax burden and encouraging broader adoption of inland shipping.
- Regulatory Framework for Private Investment: The National Waterways (Construction of Jetties/Terminals) Regulations, 2025 have been notified, enabling private investment in inland waterways infrastructure.
- Port Integration: To ensure seamless multimodal logistics, the Multi-Modal Terminals at Varanasi, Sahibganj, and Haldia, as well as the Intermodal Terminal at Kalughat, are being transferred to Shyama Prasad Mookerjee Port, Kolkata for operation and management.
- This integration is expected to streamline cargo movement between ports and inland waterways.
- Digitisation and Centralised Database: A centralised portal is being developed for the registration of inland vessels and crew, similar to the ‘Vahan’ and ‘Sarathi’ systems used for road transport. This initiative will:
- Simplify registration processes.
- Provide real-time data on vessel and crew availability.
- Enhance transparency and planning in the sector.
- Cargo Aggregation Infrastructure: To resolve issues related to sparse industrial presence along waterways, cargo aggregation hubs are under development:
- Freight Village at Varanasi.
- Integrated Cluster-cum-Logistics Park at Sahibganj.
- Engagement with Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs): More than 140 PSUs have been engaged to explore shifting a portion of their cargo to IWT.
Way Ahead
- The Indian government is investing heavily in inland waterways through projects like Jal Marg Vikas (JMVP).
- Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are being encouraged.
- Integration of IWT with multimodal logistics hubs for seamless transport is being carried out.
India Achieves Breakthrough in Gene Therapy for Haemophilia
Syllabus: GS2/ Health, GS3/ Science and Technology
Context
- India’s first human gene therapy trial for haemophilia was conducted through a collaboration between Biotechnology Research and Innovation Council’s Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine (BRIC-inStem) and CMC Vellore.
What is Hemophilia?
- It is a rare genetic disorder that impairs the body’s ability to control blood clotting or coagulation.
- This can lead to spontaneous bleeding as well as bleeding following injuries or surgery.
- Hemophilia is caused by a mutation or change, in one of the genes, that provides instructions for making the clotting factor proteins needed to form a blood clot.
- These genes are located on the X chromosome. Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY) and females have two X chromosomes (XX).
- Hemophilia can result in:
- Bleeding within joints that can lead to chronic joint disease and pain.
- Bleeding in the head and sometimes in the brain which can cause long term problems, such as seizures and paralysis.
- Death can occur if the bleeding cannot be stopped or if it occurs in a vital organ such as the brain.
- The following two are the most common:
- Hemophilia A (Classic Hemophilia): This type is caused by a lack or decrease of clotting factor VIII.
- Hemophilia B (Christmas Disease): This type is caused by a lack or decrease of clotting factor IX.
- Treatment: There are 2 main approaches to treatment:
- Preventative treatment, where medicine is used to prevent bleeding and subsequent joint and muscle damage,
- On-demand treatment, where medicine is used to treat prolonged bleeding.
Gene Therapy to cure Hemophilia
- Indian scientists conducted the gene therapy trial for severe hemophilia A.
- The participants received autologous hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which were genetically modified using lentiviral vectors.
- These modified HSCs are capable of giving rise to blood cells that produce functional Factor VIII protein over a substantial period of time.
- This approach reduces or eliminates the need for repeated Factor VIII infusions.
| Gene Therapy – It is a technique that uses genes to treat, prevent, or cure diseases by: 1.Replacing faulty genes, 2. Deactivating harmful genes, 3. Introducing new genes to restore health. Methods of Gene Therapy: 1. Somatic Cell Gene Therapy involves the insertion of therapeutic genes into non-reproductive (somatic) cells. The changes are not heritable and are limited to the individual receiving the treatment. 2. Germline Gene Therapy targets reproductive cells such as sperm or eggs, leading to heritable genetic changes. However, due to ethical and safety concerns, this type of therapy is currently banned in most countries, including India. |
Hydrogen Bomb a Game-Changer for Modern Warfare
Syllabus: GS3/ Science and Technology, Defence
Context
- Chinese researchers have tested a new hydrogen bomb that uses magnesium hydride to create a sustained fireball without nuclear materials.
What is a Hydrogen Bomb?
- A hydrogen bomb or thermonuclear bomb traditionally involves a two-stage detonation process:
- Primary (Fission) Trigger: Utilizes fissile material such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 to create immense heat and pressure.
- Secondary (Fusion) Stage: The extreme conditions cause isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) to undergo fusion, releasing energy many times greater than a simple fission bomb.
What is a Fissile-Free Hydrogen Bomb?
- China’s hydrogen bomb innovation replaces the traditional fission-based trigger with advanced ignition systems such as;
- Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) using high-powered lasers, or
- Magnetic Compression through devices like Z-pinch plasma systems.
- These systems compress and heat a pellet of hydrogen isotopes (like deuterium and tritium) to initiate fusion, without the use of uranium or plutonium.
What are the Concerns?
- Legal Loophole: Under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), nuclear weapons are primarily defined by the use of fissile materials.
- Fissile-free fusion devices will circumvent these treaties, challenging the current global nuclear arms control framework.
- Ease of Development: Fusion fuels (e.g., deuterium, tritium) are not as tightly regulated as fissile materials.
- Fusion technologies are embedded within civilian research and energy programs, making dual-use harder to track.
- Proliferation Risk: Rogue states and terror groups could exploit this new pathway to thermonuclear weapons.
- Asymmetric Warfare Implications: Compact, high-yield, and non-radioactive bombs could be used;
- In covert operations
- As tools of gray-zone warfare
- Smuggled easily across borders
- Disguised as industrial accidents
Way Ahead
- Redefining International Law: Update CTBT to include non-fissile thermonuclear tests. There is a need to rethink definitions of nuclear weapons by energy yield, not just fissile content.
- Verification Mechanisms: Create a Fusion Weapons Verification Body (FWVB) under the IAEA, modelled after the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW).
- India, with credible minimum deterrence doctrine, now faces strategic uncertainty. Hence it should invest in technologies to detect non-radiological fusion detonations.
