India’s Claim Over Continental Shelf in Arabian Sea
Syllabus: GS1/Geography; GS2/Global Groupings & Agreements
Context
- India has strategically expanded its claim in the Central Arabian Sea, adding nearly 10,000 square kilometers to its Extended Continental Shelf (ECS).
About the Continental Shelf
- It is a critical concept in maritime law, defined under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
- It refers to the submerged extension of a country’s landmass, stretching from the coastline to the deep ocean floor.
- Coastal nations have sovereign rights over their continental shelf for exploring and exploiting natural resources, such as minerals, oil, and gas.
| India’s Expanding Claims – Recent Addition in the Arabian Sea: According to the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa, India’s seabed and sub-seabed area could nearly equal its land area of 3.274 million square kilometers. – Modified Strategy: In response to Pakistan’s objections over disputed areas in the Western Arabian Sea, the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) rejected India’s entire claim in the region in March 2023. 1. Recently, India restructured its claims into partial submissions, securing uncontested areas while leaving disputed regions for bilateral discussion. |
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and Beyond
- Nations are entitled to an EEZ extending 200 nautical miles from their coastline, granting exclusive rights to fishing, mining of minerals, polymetallic nodules, and resource extraction like oil reserves.
- India currently possesses 12 nautical miles of territorial sea and 200 nautical miles of EEZ.
- Beyond the EEZ, countries can claim an ECS if they provide scientific evidence to the CLCS that the shelf is a natural extension of their landmass.
| UNCLOS and the CLCS – UNCLOS, adopted in 1982, provides the legal framework for defining and claiming the continental shelf. – The CLCS, established under UNCLOS, reviews scientific data submitted by countries and makes recommendations on the outer limits of their continental shelf. Process of Claiming a Continental Shelf Under UNCLOS – Scientific Evidence: Nations must provide detailed scientific data proving that the continental shelf is a natural extension of their landmass to the seabed. 1. It includes geological and geophysical surveys, bathymetric mapping, and sediment analysis. – Submission to the CLCS: It includes technical data and maps outlining the proposed boundaries. – Review and Recommendations: The CLCS reviews the submission and may request additional data or modifications. 1. It provides recommendations on the outer limits of the continental shelf, which are binding once accepted. – Resolving Overlaps: If the claimed area overlaps with another country’s continental shelf, bilateral negotiations or agreements are required to resolve disputes. – Final Approval: Once the CLCS recommendations are accepted, the claiming nation gains rights to explore and exploit resources in the ECS, including minerals, oil, and gas. |
Navigating Geopolitical Challenges
- Sir Creek Dispute: Located in the marshes of the Rann of Kutch, continues to challenge India’s maritime claims.
- Pakistan raised objections to portions of India’s ECS submission, citing overlaps near the maritime border.
- Oman Overlap: India’s ECS in the Arabian Sea overlaps with Oman’s claims; however, an Agreement in 2010 ensures that this shared region is not under dispute.
- Contests in the East: On India’s eastern and southern coastlines, ECS claims in the Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean span 300,000 square kilometers but have faced challenges from Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
History and Evolution of Monsoon Forecasting in India
Syllabus :GS 1/Geography
In News
- The India Meteorological Department (IMD) predicted ‘above normal’ rainfall (105% of the long-period average) during the 2025 southwest monsoon season (June-September).
- The monsoon is crucial for agriculture, economy, and water resources, providing around 70% of India’s annual rainfall.
- Since 2007, the accuracy of monsoon forecasts has improved significantly, with the absolute error in rainfall reducing by 21% from 1989-2006 to 2007-2024.
| Do you know? – Meteorology in India dates back to ancient times, with early texts like the Upanishads, Brihatsamhita, Arthashastra, and Meghdoot showing advanced understanding of weather and rain. – Scientific meteorology began in the 17th century, with Edmund Halley explaining the monsoon. The British established early observatories in the 18th and 19th centuries, and Captain Piddington coined the term “cyclone.” |
History of Monsoon Forecasting
- The IMD began forecasting the monsoon in 1877, driven by the need to understand rainfall patterns after the devastating 1876-78 Great Famine.
- Henry Francis Blanford, in the late 1800s, studied the relationship between Himalayan snow cover and monsoon rainfall.
- He made the first long-range forecast in 1886.
- Sir John Eliot took Blanford’s work forward by incorporating local weather conditions and data from the Indian Ocean and Australia, although his predictions were still limited in accuracy.
- Sir Gilbert Walker in 1904, introduced statistical models using 28 parameters, identifying the Southern Oscillation (SO) as a key influence on the Indian monsoon.
- He divided India into three subregions for forecasting.
Scenario After Independence
- IMD continued using Walker’s model until 1987, but it became less effective due to changes in climate patterns and loss of correlation with key parameters.
- In 1988, The IMD shifted to a new regression model (Gowariker Model) using 16 variables, but issues persisted with the accuracy of regional forecasts.
New Models and Strategies
- In 2003, IMD introduced two new models based on 8 and 10 parameters.
- The two-stage forecast strategy was also implemented, although it had mixed results.
- In 2007, IMD developed a Statistical Ensemble Forecasting System, reducing the number of parameters to improve accuracy and introduced ensemble forecasts to increase robustness.
- In 2012, the Monsoon Mission Coupled Forecasting System (MMCFS) was launched to combine ocean, atmospheric, and land data for better forecasts.
- In 2021, the Multi-Model Ensemble system further improved forecast accuracy by combining global climate models, including MMCFS.
Bandung Conference
Syllabus: GS2/ International Relations
Context
- This year marks the 70th anniversary of the historic Bandung Conference held in Indonesia in 1955.
Bandung Conference
- The Bandung Conference brought together twenty-nine newly independent Asian and African countries.
- The objective of the conference was to deliberate on the common challenges faced by decolonized nations and to assert their collective voice in a world order dominated by the Cold War superpowers.
- The conference marked the emergence of the Global South as an influential grouping in international politics.
- It aimed to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and strongly opposed colonialism, imperialism, and neocolonialism in all forms.
- The conference served as a precursor to the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
Bandung’s Ten Principles (Dasasila Bandung)
- Respect for fundamental human rights, and for the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations,
- Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations,
- Recognition of the equality of all races and of the equality of all nations, large and small,
- Abstention from intervention or interference into the internal affairs of another country,
- Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself, singly or collectively, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations,
- Abstention from the use of arrangement of collective defense to serve the particular interests of any of the big powers, and abstention by any country from exerting pressures on other countries,
- Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any country,
- Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, such as negotiation, conciliation, arbitration, or judicial settlement as well as other peaceful means of the parties’ own choice, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations,
- Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation, and
- Respect for justice and international obligations.
Conclusion
- The Bandung Conference remains a powerful symbol of unity, dignity, and self-determination for the countries of the Global South.
- In an era of shifting geopolitical dynamics, the spirit of the Bandung Conference continues to hold immense relevance for efforts toward creating a more just and multipolar world order.
| What is Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)? – NAM is an alliance of developing nations that refuses to identify with any major superpower during the Cold War. – History: It has its origins in the 1955 Bandung conference in Indonesia. – NAM was established and held its first conference in 1961 in Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia. – Founders: The movement’s founders are President Sukarno of Indonesia, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, and President Josip Tito of Yugoslavia. – Secretariat: NAM does not have a permanent secretariat or a formal founding charter, act, or treaty. After the United Nations, NAM is the second-largest grouping of nations. – Members: Currently, NAM membership consists of 120 countries: 53 from Africa, 39 from Asia, 26 from Latin America and the Caribbean, and two from Europe. It also includes the non-UN member state of Palestine, and 17 other observer countries. |
Govt. Brings Cybercrime Centre I4C under PMLA
Syllabus: GS3/Cybersecurity
Context
- The government has authorised Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) to share and receive information from the Enforcement Directorate under the anti-money laundering law.
About
- It is aimed at detecting money trails and combating cyber frauds.
- The Revenue Department under the Finance Ministry included I4C under Section 66 of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act.
- Need: This information sharing would help identify the masterminds behind such frauds which are mostly trans-national.
| About Directorate of Enforcement (ED) – Established: It was established in 1956 with the formation of an ‘Enforcement Unit’ under the aegis of the Department of Economic Affairs and handles Exchange Control Laws violations under Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1947 (FERA 1947). 1. A year later, the Enforcement Unit was renamed the Enforcement Directorate. – It is a multi-disciplinary organization mandated with investigation of the offence of money laundering and violations of foreign exchange laws. The statutory functions of the Directorate include enforcement of following Acts: – The Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA): It is a civil law enacted to consolidate and amend the laws relating to facilitate external trade and payments. – The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA): It is a criminal law enacted to prevent money, ED has been given the responsibility to enforce the provisions of the PMLA. – The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 (FEOA): This law was enacted to deter economic offenders from evading the process of Indian law by remaining outside the jurisdiction of Indian courts. |
What is Cybercrime?
- Cybercrime refers to criminal activities that involve the use of computers, networks, and digital technologies.
- It encompasses a wide range of illicit activities conducted in the virtual space, often with the intent to compromise, damage, or gain unauthorized access to computer systems, networks, and data.
- Cybercriminals employ various techniques and tools to exploit vulnerabilities in networks, and they may target individuals, organizations, or even governments.
Common types of cybercrime include:
- Hacking: Unauthorized access to computer systems or networks to steal, alter, or destroy data.
- Phishing: Deceptive attempts to acquire sensitive information, such as usernames, passwords, and financial details, by posing as a trustworthy entity.
- Malware: Malicious software designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to computer systems.
- Identity Theft: Stealing and using someone’s personal information, such as social security numbers or credit card details, for fraudulent purposes.
- Cyber Espionage: Covert activities aimed at gaining unauthorized access to sensitive information for political, economic, or military purposes.
- Cyberbullying: Using digital platforms to harass, threaten, or intimidate individuals.
Impact of Cyber Crimes
- National Security Threats: Cyber crimes pose a threat to national security when state-sponsored actors or criminal organizations target critical infrastructure, government institutions, or military systems.
- Data Breaches: Data breaches lead to the exposure of personal information, trade secrets, intellectual property, and other confidential data, causing severe damage to the affected entities.
- Disruption of Services: Cyber attacks disrupt essential services such as power grids, communication networks, and transportation systems.
- Reputational Damage: Organizations that fall victim to cyber attacks often suffer reputational damage.
Initiatives by Government of India to Prevent Cybercrimes
- Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In): CERT-In is the national nodal agency for responding to cybersecurity incidents.
- It provides proactive and reactive cybersecurity support and plays a crucial role in ensuring the security and resilience of the country’s cyber infrastructure.
- National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): NCIIPC is responsible for protecting critical information infrastructure from cyber threats.
- It identifies and designates critical sectors and advises organizations in these sectors on enhancing their cybersecurity measures.
- Cyber Crime Prevention against Women & Children (CCPWC) scheme: The Ministry of Home Affairs has provided financial assistance to all the States & UTs under the scheme to support their efforts for setting up of cyber forensic-cum-training laboratories, training, and hiring of junior cyber consultants.
- Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): It provides a framework and ecosystem for Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs) to deal with cyber crimes in a comprehensive and coordinated manner.
- ‘Joint Cyber Coordination Teams’ have been constituted for seven regions at Mewat, Jamtara, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Chandigarh, Visakhapatnam and Guwahati under the I4C.
- National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal: It is launched to enable the public to report incidents pertaining to all types of cyber crimes.
- A toll-free number 1930 has been operationalized to get assistance in lodging online cyber complaints.
- The Citizen Financial Cyber Fraud Reporting and Management System module has also been launched for immediate reporting of financial frauds and to stop siphoning off funds by the fraudsters.
- Cyber Swachhta Kendra (Botnet Cleaning and Malware Analysis Centre): This initiative is aimed at creating awareness about botnet and malware infections and providing tools for detection and cleaning.
| International Conventions on Cyber Crimes – Budapest Convention on Cybercrime (Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime): It is the first international treaty specifically addressing crimes committed via the internet and other computer networks. 1. It includes provisions on offenses such as illegal access, data interference, system interference, and content-related crimes. – Internet Governance Forum: The United Nations Internet Governance Forum (IGF) serves to bring people together from various stakeholder groups, as equals, in discussions on digital public policy. – African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection (Malabo Convention): This convention focuses on cybersecurity and personal data protection on the African continent. 1. It outlines principles for preventing cyber threats, protecting critical information infrastructure, and facilitating international cooperation. |
NMCG Approves Annual Master Plan to Promote River-Sensitive Urban Planning Under RCA
Syllabus: GS3/Urban Planning
Context
- The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has approved the annual master plan under the River Cities Alliance (RCA) to chart a roadmap of initiatives to be undertaken across the year.
About
- As per the Jal Shakti Ministry, the plan focuses on integrating river-sensitive urban planning within India’s growing cities.
- It encompasses a series of capacity-building programs, knowledge exchange platforms, development of technical tools, expert guidance, and thematic case studies.
Urban River Management Plans (URMPs)
- It was launched in 2020 by National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) and NMCG.
- It represents a first-of-its-kind approach to ensure that environmental, economic, and social dimensions are considered in the urban management of rivers.
- Five cities—Kanpur, Ayodhya, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar, Moradabad, and Bareilly—have already developed their URMPs.
- The year ahead will also see the development of 25 more URMPs as part of the first phase of a larger mission to create 60 such plans across India over the next two to three years.
- Steering Committees have already been constituted in states like Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal to facilitate plan formulation and guide implementation.
- Supported by the World Bank, this initiative marks a bold step in deepening river-sensitive urban governance.
River City Alliance
- RCA was initiated by NMCG under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, in association with National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) under Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) in 2021.
- It is a dedicated platform for river cities across India to discuss & exchange information for sustainable management of urban rivers.
- The Alliance focuses on three broad themes– Networking, Capacity Building and Technical Support.
- The alliance began with 30 member cities and has since expanded to include over 145 cities across India, encompassing both Ganga basin and non-Ganga basin urban areas.
- The city of Aarhus, Denmark, has also joined, marking the alliance’s growing international engagement.
Global River Cities Alliance (GRCA)
- Building on RCA’s success, the Global River Cities Alliance (GRCA) was launched at COP28 in 2024.
- This international coalition includes over 275 river cities from 11 countries, such as Egypt, the Netherlands, Denmark, Ghana, Australia, Bhutan, Cambodia, and Japan.
- The GRCA aims to foster global collaboration on river conservation and sustainable water management, with support from international funding agencies like the World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB), and Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB).
| National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) – NMCG is a registered society under the Societies Registration Act 1860. – Objective: To ensure effective abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of the river Ganga and maintain minimum ecological flows in the river while ensuring environmentally sustainable development. – NMCG has a two tier management structure and comprises Governing Council and Executive Committee. 1. Head: Both of them are headed by Director General, NMCG. 2. The Executive Committee has been authorized to accord approval for all projects up to Rs.1000 crore. – It implements Centre’s flagship Namami Gange scheme Programme, which integrates the efforts to clean and protect the Ganga River in a comprehensive manner. |
